Harris, C. E.

Applying Moral Theories

Preface xi What Is Ethics? 1(18) Three Types of Claims Made in Moral Arguments 2(5) Factual Issues 3(1) Conceptual Issues 4(2) Moral Issues 6(1) The Nature of Moral Statements 7(5) Normative versus Factual Statements 7(1) An Important Corollary 8(2) Characteristics of Ethical Statements 10(2) Concepts in Ethical Discourse 12(2) A Burn Victim's Desire to Die 14(3) Factual Issues 15(1) Conceptual Issues 15(1) Moral Issues 15(1) Moral and Factual Statements 16(1) Characteristics of Moral Statements 16(1) Concepts in Moral Philosophy 17(1) Concept Summary 17(2) Morality: Relative or Objective? 19(19) Classical Moral Relativism 20(7) The Diversity Thesis 21(1) The Relativity Thesis 22(2) The Toleration Thesis 24(1) Evaluating Classical Moral Relativism 25(2) Limited Moral Relativism 27(5) The Diversity of Morality 28(1) Limits to Moral Diversity 29(2) Evaluating Limited Moral Relativism 31(1) Concept Summary 32(1) The Divine Command Theory 32(4) Rationality versus Truth 36(1) Concept Summary 37(1) Moral Theories 38(25) Common Morality and Moral Theories 39(3) The Three Levels of a Moral Theory 42(8) First Level: Moral Judgments 44(2) Second Level: Moral Principles 46(2) Third Level: Moral Standard 48(2) Four Criteria for Evaluating a Moral Theory 50(4) Criterion 1: Consistency and Coherence---Does the Theory Yield Consistent Judgments and Show Internal Coherence? 50(2) Criterion 2: Justification---How Well Can the Moral Standard Be Justified? 52(1) Criterion 3: Plausibility---Does the Moral Theory Produce Moral Judgments That Agree with Our Prior Moral Beliefs? 52(2) Criterion 4: Usefulness---Is the Theory Useful in Resolving Moral Disagreements? 54(1) Concept Summary 54(1) Problems in Applying Moral Principles 55(7) Relevance Problems 55(4) Conflict Problems 59(2) Room for Disagreement 61(1) Concept Summary 62(1) The Ethics of Self-Interest 63(25) The Paradox of Egoism 65(2) The State of Nature 65(1) An Illustration 66(1) Escaping from the Paradox of Egoism 67(2) The Moral Standard 69(1) Checklist for Applying Act Egoism 70(1) Checklist for Applying Rule Egoism 70(1) Concept Summary 71(1) The Personal and Social Ethics of Egoism 71(5) Duties to Self 71(1) Duties to Others 72(1) Social Ethics 73(3) Concept Summary 76(1) Applying the Ethics of Egoism 76(6) Case 1: Bryan's Dilemma 77(1) Case 2: The Legalization of Homosexual Acts Between Consenting Adults 78(2) Case 3: Should a Lawyer Reveal the Truth? 80(2) Evaluating Egoism as a Moral Theory 82(4) Criterion 1: Coherence and Consistency 82(1) Criterion 2: Justification of the Moral Standard 82(2) Criterion 3: Plausibility of the Moral Judgments 84(1) Criterion 4: Usefulness 85(1) Concept Summary 86(2) The Ethics of Natural Law 88(32) The Natural-Law Moral Standard 89(4) What Is Natural Law? 89(2) Human Nature and Natural Inclinations 91(2) Moral Absolutism and the Qualifying Principles 93(6) Moral Absolutism 93(2) Qualifying Principles 95(4) Checklist for Applying Natural-Law Ethics 99(1) Concept Summary 100(1) The Personal and Social Ethics of Natural Law 100(6) Duties to Self 100(3) Duties to Others 103(1) Social Ethics 103(3) Concept Summary 106(1) Applying the Ethics of Natural Law 107(7) Case 1: AIDS and Condoms 107(3) Case 2: The Morality of Obliteration Bombing 110(1) Case 3: The Suppression of Galileo 111(3) Evaluating Natural Law as a Moral Theory 114(4) Criterion 1: Consistency and Coherence 114(1) Criterion 2: Justification 115(1) Criterion 3: Plausibility 116(2) Criterion 4: Usefulness 118(1) Concept Summary 118(2) The Ethics of Utilitarianism 120(33) The Utilitarian Moral Standard 121(5) The Definition of Utility 122(2) Distribution versus Quantity of Utility 124(1) The Place of Animals 125(1) Act Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism 126(3) Further Considerations in Applying Rule Utilitarianism 129(4) Will Others Obey the Rules? 129(1) How Should the Rule Be Formulated? 130(3) Checklist for Applying Rule Utilitarianism 133(1) Checklist for Applying Act Utilitarianism 133(1) Concept Summary 134(1) Utilitarian Personal and Social Ethics 134(6) Duties to Self 135(1) Duties to Others 136(2) Social Ethics 138(2) Applying Utilitarian Theories 140(6) Case 1: The Willowbrook School 140(2) Case 2: The Morality of Whaling 142(2) Case 3: Reverse Discrimination 144(2) Evaluating Utilitarianism as a Moral Theory 146(5) Criterion 1: Consistency and Coherence 147(1) Criterion 2: Justification 147(1) Criterion 3: Plausibility 148(2) Criterion 4: Usefulness 150(1) Concept Summary 151(2) The Ethics of Respect for Persons 153(39) The Universalization Principle as a Version of the Moral Standard 155(4) The Self-Defeating Test 155(3) Guidelines for Applying the Universalization Principle 158(1) The Means-End Principle as a Version of the Moral Standard 159(10) Preliminary Concepts 160(4) The Negative Test 164(1) The Positive Test 165(4) Checklist for Applying the Ethics of Respect for Persons 169(1) Concept Summary 169(1) The Personal and Social Ethics of the Ethics of Respect for Persons 170(4) Duties to Self 170(1) Duties to Others 171(1) Social Ethics 172(2) Concept Summary 174(1) Applying the Ethics of Respect for Persons 174(12) Case 1: The Case of Baby Marissa 174(3) Case 2: Deceptive Psychological Testing 177(3) Case 3: Surrogate Mothers 180(3) Case 4: Buying and Selling Blood 183(3) Evaluating the Ethics of Respect for Persons as a Moral Theory 186(4) Criterion 1: Consistency and Coherence 186(1) Criterion 2: Justification 186(2) Criterion 3: Plausibility 188(1) Criterion 4: Usefulness 189(1) Concept Summary 190(2) Virtue Ethics 192(30) What is Virtue Ethics? 194(1) What Is a Virtue? 195(2) Aristotle's Portrait of the Virtuous Person 197(5) The Magnanimous Man and the Golden Mean 197(3) Love and Friendship, Happiness, and Luck 200(2) Feminism and the Ethics of Care 202(4) Ethics in a Different Voice 202(2) An Ethics of Relationships 204(2) Virtue Pluralism 206(2) Checklist for Applying Virtue Ethics 208(1) Concept Summary 209(1) Virtues and Personal and Social Ethics 210(3) Duties to Self 210(1) Duties to Others 211(1) Social Ethics 212(1) Concept Summary 213(1) Applying Virtue Ethics 213(6) Case 1: Abortion 214(1) Case 2: Animal Rights 215(1) Case 3: The Job vs. Conscience 216(1) Case 4: The Patient Wants to Die 217(1) Case 5: Perilous Pursuit 218(1) Evaluating Virtue Ethics 219(2) Criterion 1: Coherence and Consistency 219(1) Criterion 2: Justification of the Moral Standard 219(1) Criterion 3: Plausibility of Moral Judgments 220(1) Criterion 4: Usefulness in Resolving Ethical Conflicts 221(1) Concept Summary 221(1) Appendix I Applying the Moral Theories 222(3) Appendix II Cases for Analysis 225(22) Index 247