Collective Responsibility and Accountability Under International Law

Acknowledgments ix Foreword xi Introduction xiii a. Responsibility and Guilt xiv b. Collective Responsibility xvi c. Collective Guilt xx d. Liability for the Acts of Others Under International Law xxii i. Collective Responsibility Under International Humanitarian Law xxiii ii. Collective Responsibility Under International Criminal Law xxiv Part A: The Decline of the Concept of Collective Responsibility Under International Humanitarian Law Introduction: The Legal Regulation of Wartime Conduct 3 Chapter I. Collective Punishment 7 a. The Lieber Code of 1863 9 b. The Brussels Conference of 1874 11 c. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 16 d. The First World War and Its Aftermath 28 e. The Geneva Prisoners of War Convention of 1929 32 f. The Second World War and Its Aftermath 34 i. Judgments of National Courts 36 ii. Trials Before Military Tribunals at Nuremberg 41 g. The Geneva Conventions of 1949 44 i. Geneva Convention III Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War 46 ii. Geneva Convention IV Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons 48 h. The Additional Protocols of 1977 55 i. Additional Protocol II Noninternational Armed Conflicts 60 ii. Additional Protocol I International Armed Conflicts 64 i. The War Crime of Collective Punishment 68 j. Concluding Observations 78 Chapter II. Hostage-Taking 81 a. The Law on Hostage-Taking Prior to the Second World War 83 b. Judicial Interpretation in the Aftermath of the Second World War 93 i. The Nuremberg Judgment 93 ii. The Hostages Case 95 iii. Other Post-Second World War Decisions 101 c. The Geneva Conventions of 1949 109 d. The Additional Protocols of 1977 116 e. Other Sources of the International Prohibition and Crime of Hostage-Taking 121 f. Concluding Observations 128 Chapter III. Belligerent Reprisals 131 a. The Customary Law of Belligerent Reprisals 131 b. The Treaty Law of Belligerent Reprisals Prior to the Second World War 134 c. Judicial Interpretation in the Aftermath of the Second World War 139 d. The Geneva Conventions of 1949 145 e. The Additional Protocols of 1977 148 f. Customary Status of Conventional Reprisal Prohibitions 154 g. Jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia 156 h. Does the Doctrine of Belligerent Reprisals Apply in Noninternational Armed Conflicts? 166 i. Non-State Actors and the Doctrine of Belligerent Reprisals 172 j. Applying International Human Rights Law During Armed Conflict 175 k. Concluding Observations 182 Part B: Collective Responsibility From the Battlefield to the Courtroom: Liability for the Acts of Others Under International Criminal Law Introduction: The Birth of International Criminal Justice 189 Chapter IV. Conspiracy, Common Plan, and Joint Criminal Enterprise Liability 197 a. Accounting for the Crimes of the Second World War 198 i. The Preparatory Work 199 ii. The London Conference on Military Trials 207 iii. Codification 214 iv. Application of the Concept by War Crimes Tribunals 218 b. Joint Criminal Enterprise at the International Criminal Tribunals 226 i. Establishment of the Doctrine 227 ii. Subsequent Reliance on Joint Criminal Enterprise 233 1. Individual Criminal Responsibility Under International Criminal Law 239 2. Collective Criminality and the Principle of Personal Culpability 245 c. Concluding Observations 253 Chapter V. Criminal Organizations 257 a. Prelude to Nuremberg 257 i. The Bernays Proposal 257 ii. The U.N. War Crimes Commission 262 iii. The London Conference on Military Trials 266 b. Nuremberg and Subsequent Judgments 273 c. Criminal Organizations Beyond Nuremberg 281 d. Concluding Observations 290 Chapter VI. Superior Responsibility 293 a. Historical Development 294 b. The Post-Second World War Cases 299 i. The Yamashita Case 301 ii. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East 310 iii. Trials of German and Nazi War Criminals 315 c. International Codification and Domestic Prosecution 325 i. The Medina Court Martial 326 ii. Additional Protocol I 330 iii. The Kahan Commission 335 d. Jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunals 337 e. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 347 f. Concluding Observations 354 Conclusion 359 Bibliography 367 Table of Cases 381 Table of Treaties 387 Index 389 About the PAIL Institute 396