Commercial Satellite Imagery : A Tactic in Nuclear Weapon Deterrence

Preface xiii List contributors xv List of figures xxiii List of tables xxix List of plates xxxi Acronyms and abbreviations xxxv Introduction 1(10) B. Jasani G. Stein Background 1(1) IAEA and its safeguards 2(3) Why commercial satellites? 5(4) References 9(2) The new safeguards protocol - the need for new verification technologies 11(12) B. Richter G. Stein Introduction 11(1) Evolution of safeguards 12(1) Structure of the new safeguards systems and further trends 13(3) Universality 14(1) Non-discrimination 15(1) Irreversibility 15(1) Transparency 15(1) Political and institutional aspects 15(1) Safeguards approaches 15(1) Impacts on the development of new verification technologies 16(2) Research and development 18(2) Protection of sensitive information 19(1) Authentication and tamper-resistance 19(1) Environmental testing of equipment 20(1) Social and institutional transparency 20(1) Modeling 20(1) Software development 20(1) Summary 20(1) References 21(2) Use of commercial satellite imagery in strengthening IAEA safeguards 23(26) K. Chitumbo S. Robb J. Hilliard Introduction 23(1) Potential safeguards applications of commercial satellite imagery 24(6) Safeguards applications: general 24(2) Satellite imagery and the fuel cycle 26(2) Satellite imagery and INFCIRC/153 28(1) Satellite imagery and INFCIRC/66 28(1) Satellite imagery and voluntary offers of nuclear weapons states 29(1) Satellite imagery and the Additional Protocol 29(1) Resource implications 30(2) Imagery costs 30(1) Hardware resources 31(1) Software support 31(1) Training 32(1) Personnel 32(1) Cost/benefit analysis 32(2) Costs 32(1) Benefits 33(1) Measuring the benefits 33(1) Implementation 34(2) IAEA and SIAL 34(1) SIAL tasking process 35(1) Future 36(3) Summary conclusions 39(1) The nuclear fuel cycle and related activities: what can be seen from satellites 40(5) Source material acquisition 41(1) Conversion 42(1) Enrichment 43(1) Fuel fabrication 44(1) Reactors 45(1) Reprocessing 45(1) Heavy water production 45(1) Research centres 45(1) Article 2a(i) 46(1) Article 2a(ii) 46(1) Article 2a(iii) 46(1) Article 2a(iv) 46(1) Article 2a(v) 46(1) Article 2a(vi) 47(1) Article 2a(vii) 47(1) Article 2a(viii) 47(1) Article 2a(ix) 47(1) Article 2a(x) 47(1) Article 2b(i) 47(1) Article 2b(ii) 48(1) Article 2c 48 An assessment of satellite imagery and the additional protocol 45(4) The role of satellite imagery for monitoring international treaties 49(18) B. Jasani Introduction 49(2) Satellite orbits 51(3) Satellite capabilities 54(4) Spatial resolution 54(12) Spectral resolution 66 Space-based remote sensing 58(1) Image analysis techniques 59(6) Contrast enhancement 59(1) Edge enhancement 59(3) Image manipulation 62(1) Principle component analysis 62(1) Unsupervised cluster analysis 62(2) Supervised land-cover classification 64(1) Pattern recognition 64(1) Geographic information system 65(1) Summary 65(1) References 66(1) Analysis of digital satellite imagery 67(12) M. J. Canty I. Niemeyer Image representation 67(2) Principal components transformation 69(1) Fourier analysis and filters 70(1) Image fusion 71(2) IHS transformation 71(1) Brovey transformation 72(1) Wavelet transformation 72(1) Change detection 73(4) Image registration 73(1) Multivariate alteration detection 73(3) Significance thresholds 76(1) Software for change detection 77(1) References 77(2) Commercial remote satellite programmes 79(46) Canada 79(1) Q. S. Bob Truong R. Keeffe Introduction 79(1) Canadian remote, sensing programme - overview 79(2) Commercial satellite programme 81(3) Airborne programme in support of satellite programme 84(9) Concluding remarks 93(3) Acknowledgements 96(1) References 97(1) France 98(1) A. Baudoin Introduction 98(1) French activities in earth observation 99(1) Brief history of the SPOT programme 100(1) Characteristics of the SPOT system 101(3) The SPOT ground segment 104(3) The near future: SPOT 5 107(4) A new programme: Pleiades 111(6) Conclusion 117(1) References 118 The commercial remote sensing satellite programme in India 98(10) R. Krishnan Introduction 98(1) Early missions 99(1) The IRS missions: the first generation 99(1) IRS: second generation 99(2) IRS: P series 101(2) Future missions 103(1) Use of IRS data 103(4) Conclusion 107(1) Acknowledgements 107(1) References 108(1) Israel's commercial remote sensing satellite program 108(10) G. M. Steinberg Introduction 108(2) The origins of the Israeli space imaging efforts 110(3) Dual-use technology concerns 113(2) Application to Middle East arms options 115(1) References 116(2) Japan 118(1) T. Hamazaki M. Onoda Introduction 137(1) Japanese earth observation satellite programme 138(2) Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS) 140(2) Data policy 142(4) Commercialisation and future prospects for Japanese remote sensing 146(1) Conclusion 147(1) References 147 Russia 118(1) O. Zhdanvich Introduction 148(1) Civil earth observation programme of the Soviet Union - historical overview 149(3) Commercial Russian remote sensing programme 152(18) Example of analysis of a possible future construction site for a nuclear power station on the basis of KVR-1000 data 170(1) Russian commercial remote sensing data distribution policies 170(1) Concluding remarks 171(2) References 173(1) List of Russian state and private companies, who supply Russian commercial remote sensing data 173 Commercial remote sensing satellite programmes in the United States 118(7) R. Pearson Introduction 118(1) Government satellites 118(3) Private commercial satellites 121(1) Data sale and cost policy 122(1) Conclusions 123(2) Applications of commercial satellite imagery: some case studies 125(30) B. Jasani M. D. Ward Introduction 125(1) Examples of how CSI could be used for safeguards purposes 126(26) Examples of some characteristics of nuclear facilities that can be observed 127(3) Characteristics associated with some facilities 130(3) Sources and uses of maps 133(5) Determination of the operational status of nuclear facilities 138(7) Detection of changes in facilities 145(7) Conclusions 152(1) References 153(2) Geographical information systems in nuclear safeguards 155(26) Andre Poucet Sergio Contini Furio Bellezza Introduction 155(1) Basic concepts of Geographical Information Systems 156(17) GIS definition 156(1) Data formats in a GIS 157(2) Maps 159(1) Ellipsoids and map projections 160(5) Maps rectification and georeferencing 165(1) Satellite images 166(4) Spatial analysis 170(3) An example of a GIS application in nuclear safeguards 173(6) Problem description 173(1) The declaration and verification process 174(2) The SIT support system 176(3) References 179(2) Satellite imagery and GIS: the Canadian experience 181(20) Q. S. Bob Truong C. Vincent Tao Introduction 181(1) Integration of GIS and remote sensing 182(2) GIS fundamentals 182(2) Complementarily between GIS and remote sensing 184(1) Geo-ATOMS: a hybrid data management system 184(8) Spatially enabled information management: a GIS-based approach 184(2) Design and implementation of GeoATOMS™ 186(2) Applications of GeoATOMS™ 188(1) Web-based GeoATOMS™ 189(3) SIAM: GIS-based imagery archiving system 192(3) SIAM system development 192(1) SIAM system functions 193(2) GIS generation using satellite imagery 195(3) Concluding remarks 198(1) Acknowledgments 198(1) References 198(3) Application of satellite imagery - a country case: Canada 201(16) Q. S. Bob Truong R. Keeffe P. Baines J. P. Paquette Introduction 201(1) Imagery and sites used in this study 202(1) General findings 203(3) Costs 203(1) Imagery resolution 203(1) SAR imagery 204(1) Stereo pair and advanced processing/analysis techniques 205(1) Case studies 206(8) Confirmation of member state declaration 207(1) Monitoring reactor operation using thermal infrared and SAR imagery 208(2) Detect potential undeclared activities 210(2) Monitoring changes at a declared facility 212(1) Monitoring activity at a decommissioned facility 213(1) Assisting in inspection planning and reporting 214(1) Conclusions 214(1) Acknowledgements 215(1) References 215(2) Acceptability of the Use of Satellite Imagery for Agency Safeguards Purposes 217(72) R. Loosch Introduction 217(1) Admissibility 217(12) International space law 218(11) National legislation 229(1) The Agency's internal regulations 230(1) Safeguards procedures 230(1) Financial regulations 231(1) Conclusions and recommendations 231(58) Conclusion 289(6) B. Jasani G. Stein Summary 289(3) Usefulness of commercial observation satellites 289(1) Geographical information systems 290(1) Cost/benefits and satellite imagery 291(1) Legal issues 291(1) Some drawbacks 292(1) Conclusions 292(3) Index 295