Communicating Across Cultures

I. CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS Intercultural Communication: An Introduction 3(22) Why Study Intercultural Communication? 4(5) Global Diversity Trends 4(1) Domestic Diversity Trends 5(2) Interpersonal Learning Opportunities 7(2) What Is Intercultural Communication? 9(12) Conceptualization of Culture 9(7) Conceptualization of Intercultural Communication 16(5) Intercultural Communication: Five Core Assumptions 21(4) Mindful Intercultural Communication: An Identity Negotiation Perspective 25(32) The Identity Negotiation Perspective 26(13) The Theoretical Background 27(1) Primary Identity Domains 28(8) Situational Identities 36(3) Summary 39(1) The Identity Negotiation Theory 39(6) Core Theoretical Assumptions 40(1) Assumptions 1-4 41(1) Assumptions 5 and 6 42(2) Assumption 7 44(1) Assumption 8 45(1) Mindful Intercultural Communication 45(12) Threefold Outcomes of Mindful Intercultural Communication 46(2) Mindful Intercultural Communication: Criteria and Components 48(9) II. THE INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION PROCESS: DISSIMILAR ASSUMPTIONS Value Orientations and Intercultural Encounters 57(27) Classical Value Orientations 58(8) Basic Assumptions 59(1) People-Nature Value Orientation 60(1) Temporal Orientation 61(2) Human Nature Orientation 63(1) Activity Orientation 64(1) Relational Orientation 65(1) Cross-Cultural Organizational Value Dimensions 66(10) Individualism-Collectivism: The Core Dimension 66(3) The Power Distance Dimension 69(2) The Uncertainty Avoidance Dimension 71(1) The Masculinity and Femininity Dimension 72(2) The Confucian Dynamism Dimension 74(1) Loose and Tight Social Structures 75(1) Values, Self-Conception Consequences, and Interaction 76(6) Independent and Interdependent Self-Construal 76(4) Personal and Collective Self-Esteem 80(1) Universalistic-Based versus Particularistic-Based Interaction 81(1) Summary 82(1) Recommendations 82(2) Mindful Intercultural Verbal Communication 84(30) Human Language: A Coherent System 85(6) Arbitrariness 85(1) Multilayered Rules 86(4) Speech Community 90(1) Languages across Cultures: Diverse Functions 91(9) The Group Identity Function 91(3) The Perceptual Filtering Function 94(1) The Cognitive Reasoning Function 94(3) The Status and Intimacy Function 97(1) The Creativity Function 98(2) Cross-Cultural Verbal Communication Styles 100(11) Low-Context and High-Context Communication 100(3) Direct and Indirect Verbal Interaction Styles 103(3) Person-Oriented and Status-Oriented Verbal Styles 106(1) Self-Enhancement and Self-Effacement Verbal Styles 107(3) Beliefs Expressed in Talk and Silence 110(1) Recommendations 111(3) Mindful Intercultural Nonverbal Communication 114(31) Nonverbal Communication: Specific Functions and Patterns 115(12) Reflecting and Managing Identities 117(2) Expressing Emotions and Attitudes 119(4) Conversational Management 123(3) Impression Formation and Attraction 126(1) Space and Time across Cultures 127(10) Interpersonal Spatial Boundary Regulation 128(3) Environmental Boundary Regulation 131(3) Temporal Regulation 134(3) Interpersonal Synchrony and Nonverbal Cautions 137(3) Interpersonal Interactive Synchrony 137(2) Nonverbal Cautions 139(1) Recommendations 140(5) III. BOUNDARY REGULATION AND INTERGROUP INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENTS Identity Contact and Intergroup Encounters 145(29) Social Identity Theory and Its Associated Constructs: A Boundary-Regulation Approach 146(6) Social Identity Theory 147(2) Social Categorization 149(1) Social Comparison 150(2) Intergroup Attribution: A Sense-Making Process 152(4) Attribution Theory 152(2) Intergroup Attribution Theory 154(2) Mindsets: Affective and Cognitive Filters 156(15) Intergroup Perception 156(1) Ethnocentrism and Communication 157(4) Stereotypes and Communication 161(3) Prejudice and Communication 164(5) Reduction of Prejudice and Discrimination 169(2) Recommendations 171(3) Intercultural Personal Relationship Development: Identity-and Relational-Based Themes 174(20) Personal Relationship Developments: Membership and Contextual Conditions 175(6) Cultural and Ethnic Membership Values 176(1) Gender Expectations and Norms 177(1) Individual Personality Attributes 178(1) Situational Contact Conditions 179(2) Four Identity-and Relational-Based Themes 181(11) The Identity Vulnerability and Security Theme 181(3) The Identity Autonomy and Connection Theme 184(2) The Relational Dissimilarity and Similarity Theme 186(2) The Relational Openness and Closedness Theme 188(4) Summary 192(1) Recommendations 192(2) Constructive Intercultural Conflict Management 194(39) Intercultural Conflict: Definitional Characteristics 195(6) Conflict Goal Issues 195(3) Conflict-Related Characteristics 198(3) Contributing Factors Affecting Intercultural Conflict 201(18) A Cultural Variability Perspective 202(8) Cultural-Based Conflict: Different Lenses 210(9) Intercultural Conflict Management Skills 219(8) Operational Skills Needed for Constructive Conflict Management 219(5) Collaborative Dialogue and Communication Adaptability 224(3) Recommendations 227(6) IV. IDENTITY TRANSFORMATION AND TRANSCULTURAL COMPETENCIES Identity Change and Intercultural Adaptation 233(28) Intercultural Adaptation: Antecedent Factors 234(11) Systems-Level Factors 235(4) Individual-Level Factors 239(2) Interpersonal-Level Factors 241(4) Intercultural Adaptation: The Identity Change Process 245(12) Managing the Culture Shock Process 245(2) Sojourners' Adjustment Models 247(7) Minority and Immigrants' Identity Change Models 254(3) Intercultural Adaptation: Effective Outcomes 257(2) Systems-Level and Interpersonal-Level Outcomes 257(1) Personal Identity Change Outcomes 258(1) Recommendations 259(2) Transcultural Communication Competence 261(16) Criteria of Transcultural Communication Competence 262(3) The Appropriateness Criterion 262(1) The Effectiveness Criterior 263(2) The Satisfaction Criterion 265(1) Components of Transcultural Communication Competence 265(6) The Knowledge Blocks Component 266(1) The Mindfulness Component 267(2) The Communication Skills Component 269(2) From Intercultural to Transcultural Ethics 271(5) Ethical Absolutism versus Ethical Relativism 272(3) Moral Exclusion versus Moral Inclusion 275(1) Final Recommendations 276(1) References 277(24) Index 301