Computer Music : Synthesis, Composition, and Performance

Preface to the Second Edition xi(2) Preface to the First Edition xiii 1 Fundamentals of Computer Music 1(24) 1.1 Computers 1(6) 1.2 Computer Programming 7(3) 1.3 Operating Systems and File Organization 10(2) 1.4 The Use of a Computer in Audio Systems 12(2) 1.5 Software for Computer Music 14(11) 1.5A An Overview 14(2) 1.5B Examples of Computer Music Languages 16(9) 2 The Acoustics and Psychoacoustics of Music 25(37) 2.1 Sound and the Ear 25(8) 2.2 Pitch 33(5) 2.3 Musical Tuning 38(4) 2.4 Perception of Amplitude 42(2) 2.5 Temporal Relationships 44(2) 2.6 Classical Theory of Timbre 46(8) 2.7 Modern Studies of Timbre 54(4) 2.8 Music Cognition 58(4) 3 Fundamentals of Digital Audio 62(10) 3.1 Sampling of Signals 62(4) 3.2 Quantization Errors 66(2) 3.3 Arithmetic Considerations 68(2) 3.4 Data Rates 70(2) 4 Synthesis Fundamentals 72(43) 4.1 Computer Instruments, Unit Generators, and Sound-Synthesis Techniques 72(1) 4.2 Signal Flowcharts 73(2) 4.3 The Oscillator 75(4) 4.4 Definition of the Waveform 79(1) 4.5 Generating Functions of Time 80(5) 4.6 Instrument Definition in Two Typical Sound-Synthesis Languages 85(2) 4.7 Additive Synthesis 87(3) 4.8 Modulation 90(5) 4.8A Amplitude Modulation 90(2) 4.8B Ring Modulation 92(2) 4.8C Vibrato Simulation by Frequency Modulation 94(1) 4.9 Noise Generators 95(4) 4.10 Synthesis by Means of Spectral Interpolation 99(1) 4.11 Instrument Designs 100(8) 4.11A Translating Flowchart Diagrams into Music Synthesis Code 101(2) 4.11B Instrument Design Examples 103(5) 4.12 Compositional Examples 108(7) 5 Synthesis Using Distortion Techniques 115(54) 5.1 FM Synthesis 115(24) 5.1A Basic Technique 115(2) 5.1B The Spectrum of Simple FM 117(5) 5.1C Obtaining Dynamic Spectra 122(1) 5.1D Simple FM Instrument Designs 123(4) 5.1E Use of Two Carrier Oscillators 127(1) 5.1F Double-Carrier FM Instruments 128(3) 5.1G Complex Modulating Waves 131(4) 5.1H FM Instrument with Complex Modulation 135(1) 5.1I Compositional Examples 135(4) 5.2 Synthesis by Waveshaping 139(19) 5.2A Basic Technique 139(2) 5.2B Transfer Functions 141(3) 5.2C Calculating an Output Spectrum from a Transfer Function 144(2) 5.2D Selecting a Transfer Function 146(3) 5.2E Considerations for Dynamic Spectra 149(1) 5.2F Implementation of a Nonlinear Processor 150(1) 5.2G Amplitude Scaling 151(1) 5.2H Example Waveshaping Instruments 152(3) 5.2I Use of Ring Modulation with Waveshapers 155(1) 5.2J A Waveshaping Instrument Using Ring Modulation 156(1) 5.2K Use of a High-Pass Filter 156(2) 5.3 Synthesis Using Discrete Summation Formulas 158(11) 5.3A Band-Limited Pulse Generator 160(3) 5.3B Pulse Generator with a Dynamically Controlled Spectrum 163(1) 5.3C Asymmetrical FM Synthesis 164(5) 6 Subtractive Synthesis 169(51) 6.1 Sources 169(2) 6.2 Introduction to Filtering 171(3) 6.3 A General-Purpose Filter 174(3) 6.4 Stopband Behavior 177(1) 6.5 Filter Combinations 178(5) 6.6 Adjustable Digital Filters 183(1) 6.7 Effect of Filtering in the Time Domain 184(2) 6.8 Subtractive Instruments That Use Noise Sources 186(2) 6.9 Subtractive Instruments That Use Periodic Sources 188(6) 6.10 Compositional Examples 194(5) 6.11 Digital Filters 199(2) 6.12 Nonrecursive Filters 201(8) 6.12A Introduction and Design Examples 201(4) 6.12B Frequency Sampling Method 205(3) 6.12C Transforming between Low-Pass and High-Pass Filters 208(1) 6.13 Recursive Filters 209(11) 6.13A Basic Recursive Filter Designs 210(2) 6.13B Pole-Zero Filter 212(2) 6.13C Imitating Analog Filter Designs Using the Bilinear Transform 214(6) 7 Analysis-Based Synthesis Techniques 220(42) 7.1 Speech Synthesis 220(24) 7.1A Speech Physiology 221(1) 7.1B Acoustic Phonetics 222(3) 7.1C Computer Analysis of Speech 225(1) 7.1D Computer Synthesis of Speech 226(2) 7.1E Formant Synthesis by Rule 228(5) 7.1F Synthesis by Analysis of Speech 233(1) 7.1G Cross-Synthesis 234(1) 7.1H Editing Analyses of Speech 235(3) 7.1I Compositional Applications 238(4) 7.1J Concept of Linear Prediction 242(2) 7.2 Short-Term Fourier Transform 244(7) 7.3 Phase Vocoder 251(6) 7.3A Basic Technique 251(2) 7.3B Musical Uses of the Phase Vocoder 253(1) 7.3C Compositional Examples 254(3) 7.4 Wavelets 257(5) 8 Granular Synthesis 262(15) 8.1 Grain Production 262(3) 8.2 Synchronous Granular Synthesis 265(4) 8.3 Asynchronous Granular Synthesis 269(2) 8.4 Granulation of Sampled Sounds 271(1) 8.5 Compositional Examples 271(6) 9 Physical Modeling 277(12) 9.1 Approaches to Physical Modeling 277(1) 9.2 Excitation 278(2) 9.3 Waveguide Filters 280(2) 9.4 Physical Model of the Vocal Tract 282(1) 9.5 Mechanical Models 283(3) 9.6 Modal Models 286(1) 9.7 Compositional Example 287(2) 10 Reverberation, Auditory Localization, And Other Sound-Processing Techniques 289(52) 10.1 Reverberation 289(19) 10.1A Natural Reverberation 289(3) 10.1B Digitally Produced Reverberation 292(10) 10.1C Variations of Schroeder Reverberators 302(1) 10.1D Sound Modification Techniques Using Variable Delay Lines 303(1) 10.1E Synthesis Technique Using a Delay Line 304(4) 10.2 Auditory Localization 308(14) 10.2A Localization Cues from Real Sources 308(3) 10.2B Simulation of Directional Cues 311(3) 10.2C Simulation of Distance Cues 314(1) 10.2D Creating a Listening Space 314(2) 10.2E Motion of Sound Sources 316(1) 10.2F Designs for Sound Localization 317(5) 10.3 Modification of Sampled Sound 322(19) 10.3A Musique Concrete 322(7) 10.3B Compositional Examples 329(12) 11 Composition with Computers 341(61) 11.1 Aleatoric Composition with Computers 341(41) 11.1A Random Processes 341(1) 11.1B Probability and Random Processes 342(14) 11.1C Examples of the Use of Random Variables 356(5) 11.1D Conditional Probabilities 361(3) 11.1E Uses of Transition Tables 364(1) 11.1F Random Walks 365(3) 11.1G Fractional Noises 368(2) 11.1H Examples of the Use of Fractional Noises 370(2) 11.1I Use of Chaotic Responses in Composition 372(2) 11.1J Compositional Examples 374(8) 11.2 Deterministic Composition with Computers 382(20) 11.2A Introduction 382(1) 11.2B Motivic Music with Computers 382(6) 11.2C Compositional Uses of Computers with Motivic Music 388(1) 11.2D Canonic Imitation with Computers 388(3) 11.2E Serial Music with Computers 391(7) 11.2F Compositional Example of Serial Music 398(4) 12 Real-Time Performance of Computer Music 402(27) 12.1 Modes of Real-Time Computer Music 402(2) 12.2 Performance Devices 404(3) 12.3 Standard Interfaces for Musical Devices 407(5) 12.4 Interactive Performance 412(4) 12.4A Extracting Parameters from Musical Sound 413(2) 12.4B Approaches to Interactive Performance 415(1) 12.5 Compositional Examples 416(13) Glossary 429(10) Index 439