Discovering Philosophy

Preface xi To the Student xv Part One Introduction Chapter 1 What Is Philosophy? 1 What Is Philosophy About? 2 The Basic Issues 4 Why Studying Philosophy Is Valuable 11 Previews of Coming Chapters 12 Main Points of Chapter 1 13 Discussion Questions 13 Selected Readings 14 Chapter 2 Philosophical Thinking 15 Analytical Thinking: Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 16 Critical Thinking 19 One Last Word About Logic 52 Main Points of Chapter 2 52 Discussion Questions 53 Selected Readings 53 Part Two Exploring the Basics of Who We Are and Dealing with Others Chapter 3 The Case for Determinism 57 What Do We Mean by Freedom? 59 What Do We Mean by Determinism? 60 Determinism: The Argument from Psychology 66 Determinism: B.F. Skinner and Behaviorism 66 Determinism: Freud and Control by the Unconscious 71 Determinism and Responsibility 80 Determinism: A Final Word 81 Main Points of Chapter 3 82 Discussion Questions 83 Selected Readings 84 Chapter 4 The Case for Freedom 85 Aristotle: The Commonsense Philosopher 86 William James: The Pragmatic Philosopher 90 Jean-Paul Sartre: The Existentialist Philosopher 97 Albert Ellis: Freedom Through Right Thinking 105 Freedom Versus Determinism: A Closing Word 113 Main Points of Chapter 4 113 Discussion Questions 114 Selected Readings 115 Chapter 5 Right and Wrong 117 Right, Wrong, and Philosophy 118 Two Approaches to Ethics 128 Results-Oriented, or Teleological, Ethics: Utilitarianism 129 Act-Oriented, or Deontological, Ethics 145 Combining the Two Approaches 151 Ethics in Summary 153 Main Points of Chapter 5 154 Discussion Questions 155 Selected Readings 156 Chapter 6 Why Be Ethical? 157 Why Act Ethically? Plato and Socrates 158 Moral Virtue, Vice, and the Soul 162 Plato: Moral Virtue as the Health of the Soul 163 Socrates: Vice Harms the Doer 165 Why Be Ethical? 179 Main Points of Chapter 6 180 Discussion Questions 180 Selected Readings 181 Chapter 7 Democracy 183 The Philosophical Argument for Democracy 186 Voting and Majority Rule 200 Democracy: Major Problems 205 Plato's Ideas on Government 206 Democracy: A Final Word 214 Main Points of Chapter 7 215 Discussion Questions 215 Selected Readings 216 Part Three Fundamental Theoretical Issues Chapter 8 The Nature of Reality 217 What's "Real"? 218 Trying to Explain Reality 220 The Nature of Reality and the Milesians 222 The Nature of Reality: Plato 234 The Nature of Reality: Berkeley 244 The Nature of Reality: A Final Word 246 Main Points of Chapter 8 247 Discussion Questions 247 Selected Readings 248 Chapter 9 What Is Knowledge? 249 Knowledge Depends on the Mind: Rationalism 250 Knowledge Depends on the Senses: Empiricism 261 Knowledge Is Limited to Appearance: Immanuel Kant 278 The Search for Knowledge Where Are We? 279 Main Points of Chapter 9 280 Discussion Questions 281 Selected Readings 281 Chapter 10 Does God Exist? 283 What Do We Mean by "God"? 284 Proofs of God: Arguments from the Character of the World 284 Arguments from Reason Alone 299 Reason or Faith? 307 Main Points of Chapter 10 309 Discussion Questions 310 Selected Readings 310 Chapter 11 The Purpose of Life: Marx and Buddha 311 Karl Marx and Marxism 313 Buddhism Another Alternative 328 The Challenge of Marxism and Buddhism 338 Main Points of Chapter 11 338 Discussion Questions 339 Selected Readings 340 Part Four Contemporary Challenges Chapter 12 Scientific Explanations of Reality 341 Science 342 The Mechanics of Sir Isaac Newton 343 The New Physics: "Old" Science to "New" 350 Einstein's Relativity Theory 351 Where Are We? 371 Main Points of Chapter 12 373 Discussion Questions 373 Selected Readings 374 Chapter 13 Does Gender Affect How We Think? 375 Knowledge: "Male" Versus "Female" Ways of Knowing 377 Gender and Ethics 388 Ethics: "Masculine" Justice Versus "Feminine" Care 390 A Final Note 401 Main Points of Chapter 13 402 Discussion Questions 402 Selected Readings 403 Chapter 14 Is a Dolphin a Person? 405 Personhood 405 Dolphin Biology and Behavior 407 Is a Dolphin a Person? 419 Main Points of Chapter 14 429 Discussion Questions 429 Selected Readings 429 A Final Word 431 Glossary 433 Appendix: Writing About Philosophy 439 Text and Photo Credits 445 Index 449