Baxter, Richard

Energy Storage : A Nontechnical Guide

List of Figures xi Acronyms and Abbreviations xiii Foreword xv 1. Storage and the Electric Power Industry 1(24) Misperceptions and Realities 3(3) Wholesale Power 6(6) Facility utilization 6(2) Cycling damage 8(2) Renewable energy 10(2) Transmission and Distribution 12(7) Infrastructure underinvestment 12(3) Transmission congestion 15(2) Ancillary services 17(2) Retail 19(5) Power quality 19(2) Cost of energy 21(3) References 24(1) 2. Storage in Other Energy Markets 25(30) Petroleum Market 27(4) The petroleum industry and the need for storage 27(2) Facility types and operations 29(1) Market uses and economics 30(1) Coal Market 31(5) The coal industry and the need for storage 32(1) Facility types and operations 33(1) Market uses and economics 34(2) Natural Gas Market 36(9) The natural gas industry and the need for storage 36(6) Facility types and operations 42(1) Market uses and economics 43(2) Lessons Learned 45(8) Value of storage 47(2) Technological change 49(2) Regulatory change 51(2) References 53(2) 3. Electricity Storage Technologies 55(111) System Components 56(4) Storage medium 56(1) Power conversion system (PCS) 57(2) Balance of plant (BOP) 59(1) Engineering, procurement, and construction 60(1) Pumped-Hydroelectric Storage (PHS) 60(8) Summary 60(1) Historical origins 61(1) Design and operations 62(2) Cost issues 64(1) Installations 64(2) Prospects and challenges 66(1) Major developers 67(1) Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) 68(12) Summary 68(1) Historical origins 69(1) Design and operations 70(4) Cost issues 74(1) Installations 74(2) Prospects and challenges 76(1) Major developers 77(1) Related Technologies 78(2) Flow Batteries 80(19) Summary 80(2) Historical origins 82(13) Design and operations 95 Cost issues 90(2) Installations—vanadium redox 92(2) Installations—zinc bromine 94(1) Installations—polysulfide bromide 95(1) Installations—cerium zinc 96(1) Prospects and challenges 96(2) Major developers 98(1) Sodium Sulfur Battery 99(9) Summary 99(1) Historical origins 100(1) Design and operations 101(2) Cost issues 103(1) Installations 104(2) Prospects and challenges 106(2) Major developers 108(1) Lead-Acid Battery 108(9) Summary 108(2) Historical origins 110(1) Design and operations 110(3) Cost issues 113(1) Installations 114(2) Prospects and challenges 116(1) Major developers 117(1) Nickel Cadmium Battery 117(8) Summary 117(1) Historical origins 118(1) Design and operations 119(2) Cost issues 121(1) Installations 122(1) Prospects and challenges 123(2) Major developers 125(1) Flywheels 125(10) Summary 125(1) Historical origins 126(1) Design and operations 127(2) Cost issues 129(1) Installations 130(3) Prospects and challenges 133(1) Major developers 134(1) Electrochemical Capacitors 135(7) Summary 135(1) Historical origins 136(1) Design and operations 137(2) Cost issues 139(1) Installations 140(1) Prospects and challenges 141(1) Major developers 142(1) Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage 142(9) Summary 142(1) Historical origins 143(1) Design and operations 144(3) Cost issues 147(1) Installations 147(2) Prospects and challenges 149(2) Major developers 151(1) Thermal Energy Storage 151(9) Summary 151(1) Historical origins 152(1) Design and operations 153(2) Cost issues 155(1) Installations 156(2) Prospects and challenges 158(1) Major developers 159(1) References 160(6) 4. Applications 166(48) Key Design Issues 169(6) Energy versus power 170(1) Cycling issues 171(2) Ownership costs 173(2) Wholesale Power 175(11) Commodity arbitrage 177(4) Contingency reserves 181(3) Blackstart capability 184(2) Transmission and Distribution 186(14) Frequency regulation 188(5) Voltage regulation 193(3) Transmission and distribution asset deferral 196(4) Retail Market 200(12) Power quality 201(5) Energy management 206(6) References 212(2) 5. Renewable Energy and Storage 214(34) Resource Utilization Challenges 217(5) Noncoincident peak 219(1) Nondispatchable 219(1) System stability 220(2) Remote Power 222(3) Island Grid 225(8) Grid Connected 233(12) Dispatchable wind 235(2) Capacity firming 237(4) Baseload wind 241(4) References 245(3) 6. Our New Energy Future 248(24) The Road to Here 249(8) U.S. federal government 249(2) State energy programs 251(2) International programs 253(1) Industry programs 254(3) User's Goals for Storage Technologies 257(4) Commercial and industrial 257(1) Utilities 258(1) Energy service companies 259(1) Regulators 260(1) A Road Map for the Future 261(10) Federal support 262(2) State support 264(1) Industry support 265(4) Hurdles to overcome 269(2) References 271(1) Appendix Vendor Web Sites 272(2) Bibliography 274(14) Index 288