Environment, Power, and Injustice : A South African History

List of Illustrations xiii List of Tables xv Preface xvii Abbreviations xxi 1 Approaching Kuruman 1(31) The Kalahari Thornveld Today: A Tour 4(12) Two Histories from Below: A Socio-Environmental Approach 16(5) Doing Socio-Environmental History in Kuruman 21(7) An Overview: The Frontier, Colonialism, and Segregation 28(4) 2 Goat People and Fish People on the Agro-Pastoral Frontier, c. 1750-1830 32(25) Goat People and Fish People Become Tlhaping 33(6) The Ecological Cycle in an Agro-Pastoral Society 39(4) Pastoralism: A Propitious Food Source 43(2) Social Power and the Ecological Cycle 45(4) Shifting Cultivation as Extensive Production 49(3) Cultivation - A Sphere of Female Autonomy 52(4) Environment, Production, and Class and Gender 56(1) 3 Intensification and Social Innovation on the Cape Frontier, 1820's-1884 57(19) Irrigation as an Innovation in Production and Society 57(9) African Initiative in River Valleys 66(4) Commercial Hunting and Wood Cutting: Profit and Extensive Production 70(2) The Social Implications of Irrigation and Commerce 72(3) An Ecological Revolution? 75(1) 4 Colonial Annexation: Land Alienation and Environmental Administration, 1884-1894 76(20) Changing Customs of Tenure on the Cape Frontier 79(2) The Scramble for Kuruman 81(2) The British Bechuanaland Land Commission and the Alienation of Pastures 83(4) The British Bechuanaland Land Commission and Land Tenure 87(2) Land Disputes under Direct Rule 89(2) Direct Rule and Environmental Administration 91(1) Working the Land and Working for Cash 92(3) Colonial Environmental Administration 95(1) 5 Environmental Trauma, Colonial Rule, and the Failure of Extensive Food Production, 1895-1903 96(21) Environmental Change over the Long Term 96(5) Epizootic and Violence, 1895-1897 101(5) Failures of Production and Distribution: Food Shortage and Famine 106(5) Wage Labor and Government Intervention during the 1903 Famine 111(5) Entitlements under Colonial Rule 116(1) 6 The Environmental History of a "Labor Reservoir," 1903-1970's 117(31) Population and Production 118(2) Producing Food: Browsers and Grazers in a Bushier Veld 120(9) Producing Food: Extensive Cultivation and Casual Irrigation on Reserves 129(4) Selling Labor for Wages and Other Remuneration 133(8) "If We Were All Equal, There Would Be No Cooperation" 141(7) 7 Apportioning Water, Dividing Land: Segregation, 1910-1977 148(25) Environmental Rights of Tribal Subjects 149(2) The Whites of the Eye 151(2) Segregation of the Flowing Eye 153(5) Extensive Agriculture Meets Agricultural Extension 158(4) Eschewing the Trust 162(2) Removals from Black Spots and White Farms, 1943-1963 164(5) Separate Development and Removals, 1963-1977 169(3) Environmental History and Racial Segregation 172(1) 8 Betterment and the Bophuthatswana Donkey Massacre: The Environmental Rights of Tribal Subjects, 1940's-1983 173(33) Indirect Rule and Environmental Rights 174(3) The Ideology of Betterment in the Thornveld 177(3) Redeveloping the Landscape 180(5) Hindering Subsistence, Promoting Commercial Production 185(4) The Effects of Betterment: Evidence from Above 189(6) The Great Bophuthatswana Donkey Massacre 195(9) Coercion and Conservation 204(2) 9 Retrospectives on Socio-Environmental History and Socio-Environmental Justice 206(17) Histories of Decline and Adaptation 207(2) The Endurance of Extensive Production 209(1) Indigenous Theories of Environmental Justice 210(7) Socio-Environmental History and Socio-Environmental Justice 217(6) Appendix A South African Census Statistics on Human Population 223(3) Appendix B South African Census Statistics on Stock Population 226(2) Appendix C1 1991 Individual Interviews 228(2) Appendix C2 1997-1998 Individual Interviews 230(2) Appendix C3 1991 and 1997-1998 Group Interviews 232(3) Appendix D A Note on Archival Sources 235(4) Notes 239(54) Index 293