Ethics : Discovering Right and Wrong

PREFACE xi 1. What Is Ethics? 1 Ethics and Its Subdivisions 2 Morality as Compared with Other Normative Subjects 3 Traits of Moral Principles 7 Domains of Ethical Assessment 8 Conclusion 11 For Further Reflection 12 For Further Reading 13 2. Ethical Relativism 14 Subjective Ethical Relativism 16 Conventional Ethical Relativism 18 Criticisms or Conventional Ethical Relativism 21 Conclusion 27 For Further Reflection 28 For Further Reading 29 3. Moral Objectivism 30 Aquinas's Objectivism 32 Moderate Objectivism 38 Ethical Situationalism 43 Conclusion 44 For Further Reflection 45 For Further Reading 45 4. Value and the Quest for the Good 46 Intrinsic and Instrumental Value 47 The Value of Pleasure 50 Are Values Objective or Subjective? 53 The Relation of Value to Morality 54 The Good Life 57 Conclusion 61 For Further Reflection 62 For Further Reading 62 5. Social Contract Theory and the Motive to Be Moral 64 Why Does Society Need Moral Rules? 66 Why Should I Be Moral? 70 Morality, Self-Interest, and Game Theory 72 The Motive to Always Be Moral 75 Conclusion 78 For Further Reflection 79 For Further Reading 80 6. Egoism, Self-Interest, and Altruism 81 Psychological Egoism 82 Ethical Egoism 87 Arguments against Ethical Egoism 91 Evolution and Altruism 95 Conclusion 97 For Further Reflection 98 For Further Reading 99 7. Utilitarianism 100 Classic Utilitarianism 102 Act- and Rule-Utilitarianism 105 Criticism of Utilitarianism 109 Criticism of the Ends Justifying Immoral Means 114 Conclusion 118 For Further Reflection 119 For Further Reading 119 8. Kant and Deontological Theories 121 Kant's Influences 122 The Categorical Imperative 126 Counterexamples to the Principle of the Law of Nature 131 Other Formulations of the Categorical Imperative 134 The Problem of Exceptionless Rules 138 The Problem of Posterity 141 Conclusion: A Reconciliation Project 142 For Further Reflection 144 For Further Reading 145 9. Virtue Theory 146 The Nature of Virtue Ethics 147 Criticisms of Action-Based Ethics 151 Connections between Virtue-Based and Action-Based Ethics 157 Feminism and the Ethics of Care 165 Conclusion 167 For Further Reflection 169 For Further Reading 169 10. Religion and Ethics 170 Does Morality Depend on Religion? 171 Is Religion Irrelevant or Even Contrary to Morality? 176 Does Religion Enhance the Moral Life? 180 Conclusion 185 For Further Reflection 186 For Further Reading 187 11. The Fact-Value Problem 188 Hume and Moore: The Problem Classically Stated 189 Ayer and Emotivism 192 Hare and Prescriptivism 196 Naturalism and the Fact-Value Problem 203 Conclusion 206 For Further Reflection 207 For Further Reading 208 12. Moral Realism and the Challenge of Skepticism 209 Mackie's Moral Skepticism 211 Harman's Moral Nihilism 215 A Defense of Moral Realism 219 Conclusion 222 For Further Reflection 223 For Further Reading 223 APPENDIX 224 GLOSSARY 228 INDEX 233