Fiber-Optic Communications

Preface xv Introduction to Fiber-Optic Communications 1(30) Introduction 2(1) Telecommunications 3(1) Milestones in Telecommunications 3(1) Regulation and Standards 3(1) Communications Basics 4(11) Basic System Analysis 6(3) Analog and Digital Signals 9(1) Frequency and Bandwidth 10(2) Multiplexing 12(2) The Communications Channel 14(1) Communications Systems 15(5) PSTN 15(1) Cable Television 16(1) Data Networks 16(4) Convergence 20(1) The Evolution of Fiber-Optic Communications 20(4) Why Fiber Optics? 24(7) Summary 24(7) Principles of Optics 31(34) Introduction 32(1) Geometrical Optics 33(7) Refraction 34(3) Reflection 37(3) Wave Optics 40(9) Electromagnetic Waves 40(2) Polarization 42(2) Coherence 44(2) Interference 46(1) Diffraction 47(2) Scattering 49(1) Quantum Optics 49(5) The Bohr Model of the Atom 49(4) Planck's Law 53(1) Nonlinear Optics 54(2) Four-Wave Mixing 54(1) Phase Modulation 55(1) Brillouin Scattering 55(1) Raman Scattering 56(1) Optical Power 56(9) Radiometric and Photometric Quantities 56(1) Power 57(1) Summary 58(7) Characteristics of Optical Fibers 65(34) Introduction 66(1) Light Propagation in Optical Fibers 67(6) Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture 67(2) Fiber Modes 69(1) Modal Properties 70(3) Fiber Dispersion 73(9) Modal Dispersion 73(2) Material Dispersion 75(2) Waveguide Dispersion 77(2) Polarization Mode Dispersion 79(1) Total Dispersion 80(2) Fiber Losses 82(4) Absorption 82(1) Scattering 83(1) Attenuation 83(3) Bending Losses 86(1) Types of Fiber 86(3) Multimode Fiber 86(1) Single-Mode Fiber 87(1) Step-Index Fiber 88(1) Graded-Index Fiber 88(1) Special Fiber Types 89(10) Plastic Fiber 89(1) Dispersion-Shifted Fiber 90(1) Polarization Maintaining Fiber 90(1) Phototonic Crystal (Holey) Fiber 91(1) Other Fibers 92(1) Summary 93(6) Fiber and Cable Fabrication 99(34) Introduction 100(1) Optical Fiber Fabrication 100(5) Fused Silica Glass 101(1) Deposition Preform Methods 101(3) Fiber Drawing and Coating 104(1) Other Fiber Types 104(1) Fiber Cable 105(5) Fiber Cabling Considerations 105(1) Fiber Cable Construction 106(1) Types of Cables 107(3) Connectors 110(9) Connector Considerations 110(1) Fiber and Cable Preparation 110(4) Connector Installation 114(2) Types of Connectors 116(3) Connector Losses 119(5) Intrinsic Losses 119(2) Extrinsic Losses 121(2) Insertion Loss 123(1) Splices 124(9) Mechanical Splices 124(1) Fusion Splices 125(1) Splice Applications 126(2) Summary 128(5) Optical Sources and Transmitters 133(36) Introduction 134(1) Source Considerations 135(1) Electronic Considerations 135(3) Conduction 135(1) The pn Junction Diode 136(2) The Light-Emitting Diode (LED) 138(6) LED Operation 138(3) LED Physical Structure 141(3) LED Performance 144(1) Laser Diodes 144(14) Laser Operation 145(5) Laser Diode Physical Structure 150(8) Transmitters 158(11) Modulator 159(1) Electrical Driving Circuit 160(1) Source-to-Fiber Coupling 161(2) Transmitter Packaging 163(1) Summary 163(6) Optical Detectors and Receivers 169(34) Introduction 170(1) The Photodetection Process 170(7) Optical Absorption 172(2) Quantum Efficiency 174(1) Responsivity 175(1) Response Time and Cutoff Frequency 175(2) Receiver Photodiodes 177(7) The PIN Photodiode 178(2) The Avalanche Photodiode 180(3) Metal-Semiconductor-Metal Photodiode 183(1) Noise Factors 184(5) Thermal Noise 184(2) Shot Noise 186(1) Dark Current Noise 186(1) Signal-to-Noise Ratio 187(2) Amplifiers 189(3) High-Impedance Amplifier 190(1) Transimpedance Amplifier 190(1) Main Amplifier 191(1) Receivers 192(11) Signal Recovery 193(1) Receiver Performance 193(1) Receiver Packaging 194(1) The Transceiver 195(1) Summary 195(8) Fiber-Optic Devices 203(30) Introduction 204(1) Optical Amplifiers 205(5) Repeaters and Regenerators 205(1) Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers 205(2) Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers 207(1) Raman Amplifiers 208(2) Couplers 210(2) Modulators 212(4) Direct Modulation 212(1) Indirect Modulation 213(1) Electro-Optic Modulators 213(2) Electro-Absorption Modulators 215(1) Multiplexers and Demultiplexers 216(5) Multiplexers 216(1) Demultiplexers 217(2) Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers 219(2) Switches 221(4) Moving Toward the Optical Switch 221(1) Optical Cross-Connects 222(1) MEMS Switching 223(2) Integrated Devices 225(8) Summary 226(7) Optical Signals and Networks 233(32) Introduction 234(1) Optical Signal Characteristics 234(2) Electrical-to-Optical Signal Conversion 235(1) Optical Signal Formats 235(1) Wavelength Division Multiplexing 236(4) Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing 236(2) Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing 238(2) Optical Networks 240(3) Fiber in the Network 240(2) Optical Network Transport Protocols 242(1) Sonet 243(22) The STS-1 Frame and Data Formats 244(3) Advantages and Disadvantages 247(1) Evolving Network Transport Services 248(1) Next Generation Sonet (NG-Sonet) 249(5) Alternative and Hybrid Transport Systems 254(5) Summary 259(6) Fiber-Optic Communications Systems 265(46) Introduction 266(1) System Design Considerations 266(26) System Power Budget 267(6) Amplifier Placement 273(2) System Rise-Time Budget 275(6) Dispersion Compensation 281(3) Noise and Error Analysis 284(3) Multiple Channel System Design 287(5) From the Global Network to the Business and Home 292(7) Long-Haul Communications 292(3) Metro and Regional Networks 295(4) Special Fiber-Optic Communications Systems 299(12) Soliton Communications 299(1) Coherent Communications Systems 300(2) Optical CDMA 302(1) Free-Space Optics 303(1) Fiber Optics and the Future 304(1) Summary 305(6) Fiber-Optic Test and Measurement 311(20) Introduction 312(1) Optical Power Measurements 312(6) Types of Power Measurements 313(2) Power Measurement Instrumentation 315(3) Optical Wavelength Measurements 318(3) Types of Wavelength Measurements 319(1) Optical Spectra Instrumentation 320(1) Signal Measurements 321(10) Dispersion and Data Rate Measurements 321(1) Noise and Error Measurements 322(3) Additional System Test and Measurement 325(1) Summary 326(5) Solutions to Odd-Numbered Problems 331(14) References 345(10) Glossary 355(14) Index 369