Schiffer, Michael B.

Formation Processes of Arch Record

Preface xix Part I. AN INTRODUCTION TO FORMATION PROCESSES 1(24) Chapter 1: The Nature of Archaeological Evidence 3(10) Introduction 3(5) General Conceptions of Formation Processes 8(5) Chapter 2: The Dimensions of Artifact Variability 13(12) Traces and the Life History of Artifacts 13(8) Formal Dimension 15(2) Spatial Dimension 17(1) Frequency Dimension 18(1) Relational Dimension 19(2) Principles of Formation Processes 21(2) Conclusion 23(2) Part II. CULTURAL FORMATION PROCESSES 25(116) Chapter 3: Reuse Processes 27(20) Varieties of Reuse 28(8) Lateral Cycling 29(1) Recycling 29(1) Secondary Use 30(2) Conservatory Processes 32(4) Reuse Mechanisms and Large-Scale Processes 36(4) Reuse: The Individual and Household Perspectives 40(4) Effects of Settlement Longevity 44(2) Conclusion 46(1) Chapter 4: Cultural Deposition 47(52) Introduction 47(1) Discard Processes 47(29) What is Discarded 47(3) The Pathway Model 50(3) The Basic Discard Equation 53(2) Variations on the Basic Discard Equation 55(3) Primary and Secondary Refuse 58(6) Maintenance Processes and Waste Streams 64(8) Influence of Social Stratification, Ethnicity, and Symbolic Factors on Discard Processes 72(3) Child's Play Refuse 75(1) Loss Processes 76(3) Ritual Caches 79(1) Treatment of Dead 80(9) Death Rates, Life Tables, and Burial Populations 81(2) Variability in Treatment of the Dead 83(2) Social Determinants of Variability in Mortuary Treatment 85(4) Abandonment Processes 89(9) De Facto Refuse and Curate Behavior 89(9) Determinats of De Facto Refuse 90(6) Other Factors Affecting the Composition of De Facto Refuse 96(1) Effect of Abandonment on Maintenance and Discard Processes 97(1) Conclusion 98(1) Chapter 5: Reclamation Processes 99(22) Introduction 99(1) Occupational Variability and Reoccupation 100(3) Reincorporation and Salvage 103(3) Scavenging 106(5) Scavenging and Displaced Refuse 111(3) Collecting and Pothunting 114(6) Other Processes 120(1) Conclusion 120(1) Chapter 6: Disturbances Processes 121(20) Introduction 121(1) Earth-Moving Processes 122(4) Surficial Disturbances 126(6) Trampling 126(3) Plowing 129(3) The Consideration of Impacts 132(4) Planning Stage Impacts 133(1) Construction Stage Impacts 133(1) Operating Stage Impact 134(2) Inferring Impacts at Sites 136(4) Conclusion 140(1) Part III. Environmental Formation Processes 144(122) Chapter 7: Environmental Formation Processes: The Artifact 143(56) Introduction 143(1) Nature of the Environment 144(2) Environment versus Artifact Perspectives 146(1) Agents of Deterioration 147(3) Chemical Agents 148(1) Physical Agents 148(1) Biological Agents 149(1) Rates and Cycles of Deterioration 150(1) Stone 151(7) Ceramic Artifacts 158(4) Glass 162(1) Organic Materials 163(26) Wood 165(15) Bacterial Decay 168(1) Fungal Decay 169(4) Insect Decay 173(4) Other Animal Agents 177(1) Decay Prevention 177(2) Weathering 179(1) Grains and other Plant Products 180(1) Textiles 181(1) Bone 182(7) Metals 189(8) General Principles 189(4) Gold 193(1) Silver 193(1) Copper 194(1) Tin 195(1) Lead 195(1) Zinc 195(1) Iron 196(1) Discussion 197(2) Chapter 8: Environmental Formation Processes: The Site 199(36) Introduction 199(1) Primary and Secondary Deposition 199(1) Soils and Sediments 200(17) Pedoturbation 206(1) Faunalturbation 207(3) Floralturbation 210(3) Cryoturbation 213(3) Frost Heave and Thrust 213(1) Involutions 214(1) Patterned Ground 214(1) Graviturbation 216(1) Argilliturbation 216(1) Aeroturbation 217(1) Other Processes 217(1) Transformations of Pits and Structures 217(14) Pits 218(2) Structures 220(11) Effects of Regional-Scale Processes 231(3) Earthquakes 231(2) Storms 233(1) Concluding Remarks 234(1) Chapter 9: Environmental Formation Processes: The Region 235(28) Volcanism 236(2) Eolian Processes 238(5) Hydrological Processes 243(13) Ground Water 245(2) Lakes 247(1) Glaciation 248(1) Colluvial and Alluvial Processes 249(2) Erosion 251(4) Coastal Processes 255(1) The Geoarchaeological Mandate 256(1) Vegetation 257(2) Fauna 259(2) Concluding Remarks 261(2) Part IV. THE STUDY OF FORMATION PROCESSES 263(102) Chapter 10: The Identification of Formation Processes 265(40) The Deposit 265(2) The Traces of Formation Processes 267(12) Simple Properties of Artifacts 267(1) Size 267(2) Density 269(1) Shape 270(1) Orientation and Dip 270(1) Uselife Factors 271(1) Damage 271(7) Accretions 278(1) Complex Properties of Artifacts 279(9) Artifact Quantity 279(1) Artifact Inventory 280(1) Vertical Distribution 280(1) Horizontal Distribution 280(1) Artifact Diversity 281(1) Artifact Density of Deposits 282(1) Measures of Disorganization 282(3) Artifact Reassembly 285(2) Representation of Parts 287(1) Other Properties of Deposits 288(4) Sediments 288(2) Ecofacts and Other Intrusive Materials 290(1) Geochemistry 291(1) Site Morphology 292(1) Analytical Strategies 292(10) Use of Extant Knowledge 292(1) A Multivariate Approach 293(1) Use of Published Data 294(4) A Best-Case Scenario 298(4) Conclusion 302(3) Chapter 11: Formation Processes and Archaeological Inference: Hohokam Chronology 305(18) Introduction 305(1) Historical Background 306(2) The Interpretation of Radiocarbon Dates 308(4) Hohokam Radiocarbon Dates 312(6) Phase Overlap 318(2) Discussion and Conclusion 320(3) Chapter 12: Formation Processes and Archaeological Inference: Broken K Pueblo 323(16) Introduction 323(2) Trash-Filled Rooms? 325(1) In Search of "Missed Pots" 326(4) A Reconsideration of Hill's Analyses 330(7) Discussion and Conclusion 337(2) Chapter 13: The Archaeological Process 339(26) Assessing the Existing Site Records of a Region 340(13) Techniques for Evaluating Recorded Sites 343(3) Archaeological Surveys 346(7) Surface Collections 353(2) Excavation and Analysis 355(6) Intrasite Sampling 355(1) Negative Evidence 356(1) Recovery Techniques 357(2) Artifact Processing and Curation 359(2) Quantitative Methods 361(1) Quality Control 361(1) Conclusion 362(3) References 365(52) Index 417