Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation and Process Control

Preface xiii Introduction and Review 1(14) Chapter Objectives 1(1) Introduction 1(1) Process Control 2(1) Definitions of the Elements in a Control Loop 3(3) Process Facility Considerations 6(1) Units and Standards 7(2) Instrument Parameters 9(6) Summary 13(1) Problems 13(2) Basic Electrical Components 15(16) Chapter Objectives 15(1) Introduction 15(1) Resistance 16(8) Resistor formulas 17(2) Resistor combinations 19(4) Resistive sensors 23(1) Capacitance 24(2) Capacitor formulas 24(1) Capacitor combinations 25(1) Inductance 26(5) Inductor formulas 26(1) Inductor combinations 27(1) Summary 27(1) Problems 28(3) AC Electricity 31(16) Chapter Objectives 31(1) Introduction 31(1) Circuits with R, L, and C 32(6) Voltage step 32(1) Time constants 33(2) Phase change 35(3) RC Filters 38(1) AC Bridges 39(1) Magnetic Forces 40(7) Magnetic fields 40(2) Analog meter 42(1) Electromechanical devices 43(1) Summary 44(1) Problems 45(2) Electronics 47(20) Chapter Objectives 47(1) Introduction 48(1) Analog Circuits 48(10) Discrete amplifiers 48(1) Operational amplifiers 49(4) Current amplifiers 53(1) Differential amplifiers 54(1) Buffer amplifiers 55(1) Nonlinear amplifiers 56(1) Instrument amplifier 56(1) Amplifier applications 57(1) Digital Circuits 58(5) Digital signals 58(1) Binary numbers 58(2) Logic circuits 60(1) Analog-to-digital conversion 61(2) Circuit Considerations 63(4) Summary 63(1) Problems 64(3) Pressure 67(18) Chapter Objectives 67(1) Introduction 67(1) Basic Terms 68(1) Pressure Measurement 69(1) Pressure Formulas 70(3) Measuring Instruments 73(7) Manometers 73(2) Diaphragms, capsules, and bellows 75(2) Bourdon tubes 77(2) Other pressure sensors 79(1) Vacuum instruments 79(1) Application Considerations 80(5) Selection 80(1) Installation 80(1) Calibration 81(1) Summary 81(1) Problems 82(3) Level 85(14) Chapter Objectives 85(1) Introduction 85(1) Level Formulas 86(1) Level Sensing Devices 87(8) Direct level sensing 88(4) Indirect level sensing 92(3) Application Considerations 95(4) Summary 97(1) Problems 97(2) Flow 99(20) Chapter Objectives 99(1) Introduction 99(1) Basic Terms 100(2) Flow Formulas 102(5) Continuity equation 102(1) Bernoulli equation 103(2) Flow losses 105(2) Flow Measurement Instruments 107(7) Flow rate 107(4) Total flow 111(1) Mass flow 112(1) Dry particulate flow rate 113(1) Open channel flow 113(1) Application Considerations 114(5) Selection 114(1) Installation 115(1) Calibration 115(1) Summary 115(1) Problems 116(3) Temperature and Heat 119(22) Chapter Objectives 119(1) Introduction 119(1) Basic Terms 120(4) Temperature definitions 120(1) Heat definitions 121(2) Thermal expansion definitions 123(1) Temperature and Heat Formulas 124(3) Temperature 124(1) Heat transfer 124(2) Thermal expansion 126(1) Temperature Measuring Devices 127(7) Thermometers 127(2) Pressure-spring thermometers 129(1) Resistance temperature devices 130(1) Thermistors 131(1) Thermocouples 131(2) Semiconductors 133(1) Application Considerations 134(7) Selection 134(1) Range and accuracy 134(1) Thermal time constant 134(3) Installation 137(1) Calibration 137(1) Protection 137(1) Summary 138(1) Problems 138(3) Humidity, Density, Viscosity, and pH 141(20) Chapter Objectives 141(1) Introduction 141(1) Humidity 142(7) Humidity definitions 142(4) Humidity measuring devices 146(3) Density and Specific Gravity 149(4) Basic terms 149(1) Density measuring devices 150(3) Density application considerations 153(1) Viscosity 153(2) Basic terms 153(1) Viscosity measuring instruments 154(1) pH Measurements 155(6) Basic terms 155(1) pH measuring devices 156(1) pH application considerations 156(1) Summary 157(1) Problems 158(3) Other Sensors 161(18) Chapter Objectives 161(1) Introduction 161(1) Position and Motion Sensing 161(5) Basic position definitions 161(2) Position and motion measuring devices 163(3) Position application consideration 166(1) Force, Torque, and Load Cells 166(4) Basic definitions of force and torque 166(1) Force and torque measuring devices 167(3) Force and torque application considerations 170(1) Smoke and Chemical Sensors 170(1) Smoke and chemical measuring devices 171(1) Smoke and chemical application consideration 171(1) Sound and Light 171(8) Sound and light formulas 171(2) Sound and light measuring devices 173(1) Light sources 174(1) Sound and light application considerations 174(2) Summary 176(1) Problems 176(3) Actuators and Control 179(22) Chapter Objectives 179(1) Introduction 179(1) Pressure Controllers 180(3) Regulators 180(2) Safety valves 182(1) Level regulators 182(1) Flow Control Actuators 183(5) Globe valve 183(2) Butterfly valve 185(1) Other valve types 185(1) Valve characteristics 186(1) Valve fail safe 187(1) Power Control 188(7) Electronic devices 188(5) Magnetic control devices 193(2) Motors 195(1) Servo motors 195(1) Stepper motors 195(1) Valve position feedback 196(1) Pneumatic feedback 196(1) Application Considerations 196(5) Valves 196(1) Power devices 197(1) Summary 198(1) Problems 198(3) Signal Conditioning 201(18) Chapter Objectives 201(1) Introduction 201(1) Conditioning 202(3) Characteristics 202(2) Linearization 204(1) Temperature correction 205(1) Pneumatic Signal Conditioning 205(1) Visual Display Conditioning 206(1) Direct reading sensors 206(1) Electrical Signal Conditioning 207(9) Linear sensors 208(1) Float sensors 208(3) Strain gauge sensors 211(1) Capacitive sensors 212(1) Resistance sensors 213(1) Magnetic sensors 214(1) Thermocouple sensors 215(1) Other sensors 215(1) A-D Conversion 216(3) Summary 216(1) Problems 216(3) Signal Transmission 219(22) Chapter Objectives 219(1) Introduction 220(1) Pneumatic Transmission 220(1) Analog Transmission 220(6) Noise considerations 220(2) Voltage signals 222(1) Current signals 223(1) Signal conversion 223(1) Thermocouples 224(1) Resistance temperature devices 225(1) Digital Transmission 226(4) Transmission standards 226(1) Smart sensors 227(2) Foundation Fieldbus and Profibus 229(1) Controller 230(5) Controller operation 231(1) Ladder diagrams 232(3) Digital-to-Analog Conversion 235(2) Digital-to-analog converters 235(1) Pulse width modulation 236(1) Telemetry 237(4) Width modulation 237(1) Frequency modulation 238(1) Summary 239(1) Problems 239(2) Process Control 241(18) Chapter Objectives 241(1) Introduction 241(1) Basic Terms 242(1) Control Modes 243(6) ON/OFF action 243(1) Differential action 244(1) Proportional action 244(2) Derivative action 246(1) Integral action 247(1) PID action 248(1) Implementation of Control Loops 249(7) ON/OFF action pneumatic controller 249(1) ON/OFF action electrical controller 250(1) PID action pneumatic controller 251(1) PID action control circuits 252(2) PID electronic controller 254(2) Digital Controllers 256(3) Summary 257(1) Problems 257(2) Documentation and Symbols 259(14) Chapter Objectives 259(1) Introduction 259(1) System Documentation 260(2) Alarm and trip systems 260(1) Alarm and trip documentation 261(1) PLC documentation 261(1) Pipe and Identification Diagrams 262(4) Standardization 262(1) Interconnections 262(1) Instrument symbols 263(1) Instrument Identification 264(2) Functional Symbols 266(1) Actuators 266(1) Primary elements 266(1) Regulators 267(1) Math functions 267(1) P and ID Drawings 267(6) Summary 269(2) Problems 271(2) Appendix A. Units 273(4) Appendix B. Thermocouple Tables 277(2) Appendix C. References and Information Resources 279(4) Appendix D. Abbreviations 283(4) Glossary 287(10) Answers to Odd-Numbered Questions 297(14) Index 311