Geoarchaeology - The Earth-Science Approach to Archaeological Interpretation 2e : The Earth-Science Approach to Archaeological Interpretation

Preface to the Second Edition xi Preface to the First Edition xiii Theory and History 1(24) The Scope of Geoarchaeology 1(3) Archaeology and the Earth Sciences 4(16) Foundational Phase: Before 1900 5(5) Collaborative Phase: 1900--1950 10(6) Integrative Phase: After 1950 16(4) Changing the Guard 20(5) Sediments, Soils, and Environmental Interpretations 25(35) Sediments 25(4) Weathering 26(1) Transportation 27(1) Postdepositional Changes 28(1) Archaeological Implications 28(1) Classification of Sedimentation Products 29(9) Clastic Deposits 29(3) Gravel 32(1) Sand 33(1) Mud 34(1) Chemical Deposition 35(1) Calcareous Precipitates 36(1) Noncalcareous Precipitates 36(1) Organic Matter 37(1) Soils and Buried Soils 38(7) The Soil Profile 39(2) Soil Types 41(1) Entisols 41(1) Vertisols 41(1) Inceptisols 41(1) Mollisols 41(1) Alfisols 42(1) Ultisols 42(1) Spodosols 42(1) Aridosols 42(1) Histosols 42(1) Paleosols and Buried Soils 43(2) Inferring Environments from Physical and Chemical Parameters 45(14) Color 45(2) Cementation and Induration 47(1) Texture 47(6) Structure 53(1) Composition 54(4) Boundaries 58(1) Micromorphology 59(1) Initial Context and Site Formation 60(43) The Creation of the Archaeological Record 60(2) Stages of Site Formation 62(1) Initial Landscapes and Original Occupation 62(1) Sedimentary Contexts 63(35) Desert Depositional Systems 64(1) The Effects of Wind 64(1) The Effects of Moisture 65(1) Desert System Site Formation 66(1) Alluvial Depositional Systems: Flowing Water 67(1) Depositional Contexts 68(7) Site Formation in Alluvial Settings 75(3) Lakes and Associated Basin Settings 78(1) Basin Deposits 78(2) Site Formation in Basin Settings 80(1) Cave and Rock Shelter Depositional Systems 81(1) Limestone Caves 81(4) Sandstone Caves and Rock Shelters 85(1) Igneous Rock Caves 85(1) Site Formation in Caves 85(1) The Glacial System 86(4) Coastal and Marine Depositional Settings 90(1) Coastal Processes and Site Formation 91(4) Coastal Landscape Context 95(3) Postdepositional Processes 98(5) Mass Wasting 99(1) Cryoturbation 99(1) Bioturbation 100(3) Methods of Discovery and Spatial Analyses 103(29) Maps 103(7) Landform Sediment Assemblages 109(1) Settlement Patterns 109(1) Remote Sensing 110(12) Geophysical Prospecting 111(2) Magnetometry and Magnetic Properties of Soils and Sediments 113(2) Electrical Resistivity 115(1) Electromagnetic Conductivity 116(1) Ground Penetrating Radar 116(1) Seismic Profiling 117(1) Magnetic Analysis 118(1) Aerial Photography 118(2) Satellite and Airborne Remote Sensing 120(1) Dowsing 121(1) Geochemical Prospecting and Analysis 122(3) Core Drilling 125(4) Locating Water Resources 129(1) Geographic Information Systems 129(1) The Complexities of Scale 130(2) Estimating Time 132(33) Climate Change and Time 133(1) Artifacts and Dating 134(1) Stratigraphy 135(8) Rhythmites (Varves) 136(3) Paleosols in Loess and Alluvium 139(3) Tephrochronology 142(1) Dating Using Animal and Plant Fossils 143(1) Paleontology 143(1) Dendrochronology 144(1) Radiometric Dating Methods 144(9) Potassium-Argon and Argon-Argon Dating 144(2) Uranium-Series Dating 146(1) Radiocarbon Dating 147(6) Other Dating Methods 153(7) Fission-Track Dating 153(1) Paleomagnetic and Archaeomagnetic Dating 153(3) Electron Spin Resonance and Luminescence Dating 156(4) Temperature-Affected Dating 160(2) Amino Acid Racemization and Epimerization 160(1) Hydration (Obsidian) 160(2) Dating Techniques Based on Chemical Accumulation 162(1) Chemical Analysis 162(1) Dating Exposed Surfaces 163(2) Patination and Desert Varnish 163(1) Cosmogenic Nuclides 163(2) Paleoenvironmental Reconstructions: Landscapes and the Human Past 165(30) Environmental and Landscape Change 165(1) Inferring Environmental Change 166(1) Ecology and Landscape Change 167(1) Terrestrial (Non-marine) Geoecologic Data from Lake Records 168(1) Plant (Botanical) Indicators 169(7) Microfossils 169(1) Pollen 169(3) Phytoliths 172(2) Diatoms 174(1) Macrofossils 175(1) Animals Indicators 176(7) Invertebrates 176(1) Ostracods 176(2) Mollusks 178(1) Insects 179(1) Vertebrates 180(1) Mammal Fossil Remains 180(1) Bird Fossil Remains 181(1) Reptile and Amphibian Fossil Remains 182(1) Fish Fossil Remains 182(1) Other Ecologic Accumulations 183(1) Pack-Rat Middens 183(1) Peat 183(1) Geochemical Indicators 183(3) Environmental Change and Archaeological Explanations 186(5) Human Habitats and Geoecology 186(2) Tectonics, Climates, Landscapes, and the Human Past 188(3) Microclimates 191(4) Human Interaction with Environment and Its Effects on Climate 192(3) Raw Materials and Resources 195(27) Definitions 195(1) Minerals 196(6) Chert and Chalcedony 196(1) Semiprecious Stones 197(2) Other Archaeologically Important Minerals 199(3) Metals and Ores 202(5) Rocks 207(3) Shells 210(1) Clays 211(2) Building Materials 213(3) Building Stone 214(1) Burnt Brick 215(1) Mortar 215(1) Other Materials 216(2) Pigments 217(1) Abrasives 218(1) Rock and Mineral Recovery 218(1) Water 219(3) Sourcing (Provenance) 222(22) Geologic Deposits 224(1) Materials Used in Sourcing 225(10) Obsidian 225(1) Sourcing Other Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 226(1) Chert 227(1) Marble 228(1) Clay 229(1) Temper 229(1) Amber 230(1) Bitumen 230(1) Soft Stone, Other Rocks, and Semiprecious Minerals 230(1) Native Copper 231(1) Complex Copper Minerals 232(1) Tin 232(2) Lead, Silver, and Gold 234(1) Sourcing Methods 235(9) Trace-Element Analyses 235(1) Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis 236(1) X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry 237(1) Isotope Analysis/Mass Spectrometry 237(1) DNA 238(1) Mineral Magnetism 238(1) Other Analytical Methods 238(1) Petrographic Analysis 238(4) Statistics and Data Analysis 242(2) Construction, Destruction, Archaeological Resource Preservation, and Conservation 244(29) Geotechnology 244(1) Construction 245(3) Dams 245(1) Canals 246(1) Fields and Raised Fields 247(1) Roads 248(1) Excavation (Mines and Quarries) 248(1) Natural Burial and Site Formation 249(1) Rock Properties and Weathering 250(6) Destruction 250(1) Weathering 251(1) Pollution 252(2) Water 254(2) Erosion and Subsidence in Archaeology 256(1) Erosion 256(1) Land Subsidence 256(1) Geologic ``Catastrophes'' and the Human Past 257(8) Earthquakes and Seismic Disturbance 257(5) Floods and Flood Legends 262(1) Volcanoes 263(2) Site Preservation 265(5) Site Preservation Problems 265(2) Reservoirs 267(1) Hilltops or Slopes 268(1) Seismicity 268(1) Site Stabilization 268(1) Earth Burial 269(1) Archaeological/Cultural Resources Management 270(3) Resource Management 270(1) Conservation 271(1) Materials Preservation 271(1) Corrosion 271(2) Epilogue 273(4) The Future 273(1) The Future of Geoarchaeology within Archaeology 273(4) Notes 277(10) Glossary 287(4) Bibliography 291(28) Index 319