Growth, Maturation & Physical Activity - 2e

Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii Credits xiv Part I Introduction Introductory Concepts 3(18) Definitions and Context 4(3) Chronological Age and Age Groups 7(1) Why Study These Phenomena? 8(2) Types of Studies 10(1) Principles of Measurement and Observation 11(2) Overview of Postnatal Growth: Scammon's Curves 13(1) General Regulation of Growth and Maturation 14(1) Sources of Growth, Performance, and Activity Data 14(4) Summary 18(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 18(3) Prenatal Growth and Functional Development 21(20) Stages of Prenatal Growth 21(2) Sex Differentiation 23(2) Twins and Twinning 25(1) Prenatal Loss 25(1) Congenital Malformations 26(1) Fetal Growth 26(3) Fetal Motor Activity 29(1) Factors That Affect Birth Weight 30(4) Overview of the Prenatal Period 34(1) Fetal Origins of Adult Diseases 35(1) Summary 36(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 36(5) Part II Postnatal Growth Somatic Growth 41(42) Measurements Commonly Used in Growth Studies 42(7) Growth in Stature and Body Weight 49(15) Growth of the Body Mass Index 64(3) Growth Patterns in Other Body Dimensions 67(3) Changes in Body Proportions 70(1) Adjusting for Variation in Body Size---Scaling 71(2) Tracking 73(4) Summary 77(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 77(6) Development of Physique 83(18) Concept of Somatotype 84(1) Methods in the Assessment of Physique 84(4) Somatotyping Children and Adolescents 88(1) Examples of Somatotypes of Individuals During Growth 89(3) Distributions of Somatotypes 92(1) Change in Somatotype During Growth 93(2) Tracking 95(4) Summary 99(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 99(2) Body Composition 101(20) Models of Body Composition 101(3) Methods for Estimating Body Composition 104(4) Applications to Children and Adolescents 108(2) Concept of Chemical Maturity 110(1) Composition of the Fat-Free Mass in Children and Adolescents 110(2) Changes in Body Density and Total-Body Water During Growth 112(1) Growth in Fat-Free Mass, Fat Mass, and Percent Fat 113(3) Tracking 116(1) Summary 117(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 117(4) Bone Tissue in Skeletal Growth and Body Composition 121(16) Bone Cells 121(1) Bone Formation 122(2) Growth of a Long Bone 124(3) Bone As a Component of Body Composition 127(7) Tracking 134(1) Summary 134(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 134(3) Skeletal Muscle Tissue 137(22) Muscle As a Tissue 137(5) Myogenesis 142(1) Muscle Fiber Types 143(3) Muscle Fiber Size 146(1) Contractile Properties of Muscle 147(1) Metabolic Properties of Muscle 148(2) Assessing Muscle Mass of the Body 150(2) Development of Muscle Tissue by Bodily Region 152(2) Summary 154(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 154(5) Adipose Tissue 159(22) The Fat Cell As a Complex Structure 159(2) Stages and Mechanisms of Adipogenesis 161(2) White and Brown Adipose Cells 163(2) White Adipose Tissue in Prenatal Life 165(1) White Adipose Tissue in Postnatal Life 165(4) Subcutaneous Fat Distribution During Growth 169(3) Abdominal Visceral Fat During Growth 172(2) Stability of Body Fat During Growth 174(1) Summary 175(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 175(6) Part III Functional Development Heart, Blood, and Lungs 181(14) Features of Fetal Circulation 181(2) Cardiopulmonary Adjustments at Birth 183(1) Changes in Heart Size 184(1) Changes in Heart Functions 185(2) Changes in Features of Blood During Growth 187(2) Changes in Lungs and Respiratory Functions During Growth 189(3) Summary 192(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 192(3) Motor Development 195(20) What Is Motor Development? 196(1) Motor Pattern and Skill 196(1) Classifications of Motor Activities 196(1) The Newborn Infant and the Reflexes of Infancy 197(1) Motor Development---Birth to 2 Years of Age 198(1) Development of Independent Walking 199(3) Development of Fundamental Motor Skills 202(5) Early Motor Development and Growth of the Brain 207(1) Status at Birth and Subsequent Motor Development 208(1) Early Postnatal Growth and Motor Development 209(1) Overview of Motor Development 209(1) Summary 210(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 210(5) Strength and Motor Performance 215(20) Physical Fitness 216(1) Measures of Strength and Motor Performance 216(1) Performance in Early Childhood 217(1) Performance in Middle Childhood and Adolescence 218(6) Relationships of Strength and Motor Performance to Size, Physique, and Body Composition 224(3) Scaling of Strength and Motor Performance 227(1) Tracking 228(3) Summary 231(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 231(4) Aerobic Performance 235(16) Measurement Issues 236(2) Growth-Related Adaptations in Aerobic Performance 238(10) Summary 248(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 248(3) Anaerobic Performance 251(16) Anaerobic Versus Aerobic Energy Turnover 252(1) Determinants of Anaerobic Performance 253(1) Measurement Issues 254(4) Growth and the Determinants of Anaerobic Performance 258(6) Summary 264(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 264(3) Thermoregulation During Growth 267(10) The Physics of Heat Transfer 267(1) Physiological Means of Thermoregulation 268(1) Responses to Heat Associated With Growth and Maturation 268(2) Acclimatization and Acclimation 270(1) Response to Cold Climates 271(1) Summary 272(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 273(4) Part IV Biological Maturation Biological Maturation: Concepts and Assessment 277(30) Assessing Skeletal Maturity 278(5) Assessing Sexual Maturity 283(10) Assessing Somatic Maturity 293(4) Assessing Dental Maturity 297(1) Interrelationships Among Maturity Indicators 297(5) Summary 302(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 302(5) Timing and Sequence of Changes During Adolescence 307(30) Adolescent Growth Spurt 307(3) Sexual Maturity 310(5) Sequence of Sexual and Somatic Maturity 315(3) Growth Spurts in Other Dimensions 318(5) Body Dimensions and Composition Relative to Peak Height Velocity 323(4) Growth Spurts in Performance 327(4) Performance Relative to Menarche 331(2) Summary 333(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 333(4) Maturity-Associated Variation in Growth and Performance 337(32) Classifying Children by Maturity Status 338(2) Maturity-Associated Variation in Body Size 340(1) Maturity-Associated Variation in Physique 341(1) Maturity-Associated Variation in Body Composition 342(6) Maturity-Associated Variation in Adipose Tissue Distribution 348(2) Maturity-Associated Variation in Strength and Motor Performance 350(8) Maturity-Associated Variation in the Adaptation to Exercise and VO2max 358(3) Maturity-Associated Variation in Anaerobic Performance 361(1) Summary 362(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 362(7) Part V Influencing Factors Genetic Regulation of Growth, Maturation, and Performance 369(30) The Human Genome 370(3) The Human Gene 373(2) From Genes to Proteins to Phenotypes 375(2) Gene Expression 377(1) The Special Case of Mitochondrial DNA 377(1) Genetic Variation in Human Genes 377(2) The Multifactorial Phenotype 379(1) Genetics of Fetal Development 380(1) Genetic Influences on the Newborn 381(1) Genetics of Selected Growth Phenotypes 382(4) Genetics of Maturation 386(2) Genetics of Selected Performance Phenotypes 388(5) Examples of Growth-Related Genes 393(2) Summary 395(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 395(4) Hormonal Regulation of Growth and Maturation 399(30) Endocrine, Paracrine, Autocrine, and Intracrine Systems 399(1) Endocrine Hormones 400(2) Other Growth-Promoting Factors and Hormones 402(1) Hypothalamic and Pituitary Hormones 403(1) Growth Hormone and Related Growth Factors 404(3) Thyroid Hormones 407(2) Parathyroid and Calcitonin Hormones 409(1) Hormones From the Adrenal Medulla and Cortex 410(1) Gonadal Glands and Hormones 411(5) Insulin and Glucagon 416(1) Leptin 417(3) Regulation of Puberty 420(2) Menstrual Cycle 422(1) Overview of Hormones and Their Actions 423(2) Summary 425(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 425(4) Energy and Nutritional Requirements 429(28) Nutrients 430(1) Breast-Feeding and the Infant 430(1) Energy Needs 431(1) Energy Requirements for Growth 432(6) Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) for Energy Intake 438(2) DRI for Protein Intake 440(4) DRI for Lipid Intake 444(2) Carbohydrate Requirements 446(1) Vitamin Requirements 446(2) Mineral Requirements 448(5) Summary 453(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 453(4) Physical Activity and Energy Expenditure: Assessment, Trends, and Tracking 457(22) What Is Physical Activity? 458(1) What Is Energy Expenditure? 458(1) Methods of Assessing Patterns or Levels of Physical Activity and Energy Expenditure 459(8) Developmental Trends in Physical Activity and Energy Expenditure 467(3) Tracking of Physical Activity Levels 470(1) Correlates of Physical Activity Levels in Childhood and Adolescence 471(3) Summary 474(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 474(5) Physical Activity As a Factor in Growth, Maturation, and Performance 479(30) Physical Activity 480(1) Approaches to the Study of Physical Activity 480(1) Activity and Stature 481(1) Activity, Body Weight, and Body Composition 482(2) Activity and Physique 484(1) Activity and Specific Tissues 485(4) Activity and Biological Maturity 489(1) Overview of Activity, Growth, and Maturation 490(1) Activity, Fitness, and Performance 490(3) The Concept of Trainability 493(11) Summary 504(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 505(4) Undernutrition in Childhood and Adolescence 509(18) Criteria 509(1) Prevalence 510(1) Forms of Undernutrition 511(1) Undernutrition in Preschool Children 511(5) Undernutrition in School-Age Children 516(5) Long-Term Consequences of Undernutrition 521(1) Summary 522(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 522(5) Obesity in Childhood and Adolescence 527(26) Indicators 527(1) Criteria and Prevalence 528(4) Correlates of Overweight and Obesity 532(6) Consequences of Obesity for Children and Adolescents 538(6) Long-Term Consequences of Obesity 544(1) Treatment 545(1) Summary 546(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 547(6) Other Factors Affecting Growth, Maturation, Performance, and Activity 553(34) Social Conditions, Growth, and Maturation 553(7) Social Conditions, Motor Development, Performance, and Activity 560(5) Ethnic Variation in Growth and Maturity 565(6) Ethnic Variation in Motor Development, Performance, and Activity 571(3) Climate, Growth, and Maturity 574(1) Climate, Performance, and Physical Activity 575(2) Summary 577(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 577(10) Part VI Applications Risk Factors During Growth and Adult Health 587(22) Primary and Secondary Prevention 587(1) Risk Factors for Common Metabolic Diseases 588(4) Current Risk Profile of Children and Adolescents 592(12) Summary 604(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 604(5) Chronic Clinical Conditions and Physical Disabilities 609(14) Selected Clinical Conditions That Affect Growth and Maturation 610(2) Physical Activity of Children and Adolescents With Chronic Conditions 612(3) Fitness and Performance of Children and Adolescents With Chronic Conditions 615(3) Summary 618(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 619(4) The Young Athlete 623(28) Participation in Youth Sports 624(1) Selection and Exclusion in Sport 625(1) Who Is the Young Athlete? 626(1) Stature and Weight of Young Athletes 627(1) Maturity Status and Progress of Young Athletes 628(1) Age at Menarche in Athletes 629(4) Physique of Young Athletes 633(1) Body Composition of Young Athletes 633(1) Motor Performance Characteristics of Young Athletes 634(1) Physiological Characteristics of Young Athletes 635(1) Does Training for Sport Influence the Growth and Maturity of Young Athletes? 636(5) Gymnastics and Ballet: Special Cases? 641(3) Overview 644(1) Summary 645(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 646(5) Secular Trends in Growth, Maturation, and Performance 651(26) Definitions 652(1) Sources of Secular Trend Data 652(1) Limitations and Assumptions in Secular Comparisons 652(1) Secular Trends in Body Size 653(7) Secular Trends in Body Proportions 660(1) Secular Trends in Indicators of Maturity 660(4) Secular Trends in Performance 664(5) Secular Trends in Developing Countries 669(1) Factors Underlying Secular Trends 670(1) Summary 671(1) Sources and Suggested Readings 671(6) Appendix A: Conversion Tables 677(2) Appendix B: Suggestions for Individual and Group Activities 679(16) Index 695(16) About the Authors 711