How Maps Work : Representation, Visualization, and Design

1. Taking a Scientific Approach to Improving Map Representation and Design 1(20) Toward Functional Maps, 2(1) Cartography as Graphic Communication, 3(3) Objections to Scope and Method, 6(2) Art and Science, 8(2) Deconstructing the Discipline, 10(1) Taking a Fresh Approach to Symbolization and Design Research, 11(5) Organization of This Book, 16(5) I. HOW MEANING IS DERIVED FROM MAPS 21(192) 2. An Information-Processing View of Vision and Visual Cognition 25(26) Marr's Approach to Vision, 27(6) Visual Cognition, 33(16) Processing of Visual Stimuli, 33(13) Processing of Imagery, 46(3) Conclusion, 49(2) 3. How Maps Are Seen 51(100) Eye-Brain System, 53(15) The Eye, 54(9) Eye to Brain, 63(1) Brain, 63(5) Perceptual Organization and Attention, 68(55) Grouping, 71(9) What We Attend To, 80(14) Selective Attention and Separability of Visual Dimensions, 81(6) Divided Attention and Variable Conjunctions, 87(4) Associativity of Graphic Variables, 91(1) Indispensable Variables, 92(2) Where We Attend, 94(7) Location, 94(2) Scale, 96(5) Scanning the Visual Scene, 101(6) Figure-Ground, 107(13) Heterogeneity, 110(7) Bottom-Up versus Top-Down Processing, 117(3) Visual Levels, 120(3) Perceptual Categorization and Judgment, 123(13) Detection, 124(3) Discrimination, 127(7) Text Discrimination, 127(1) Point Feature Discrimination, 128(2) Pattern Discrimination, 130(2) Color Discrimination, 132(1) Motion Discrimination, 133(1) Judging Order, 134(1) Judging Relative Magnitude, 135(1) Perceiving Depth from a Two-Dimensional Scene, 136(11) A Taxonomy of Depth Cues, 137(2) Applying Depth Cues to Maps, 139(12) Physiological Approaches, 139(1) Perspective Approaches, 139(2) Nonperspective Approaches, 141(6) Summary, 147(4) 4. How Maps Are Understood: Visual Array -> Visual Description [-] Knowledge Schemata [-] Cognitive Representation 150 Mental Categories, 151(19) Prototype Effects, 153(9) Family Resemblance, 155(1) Fuzzy Categories, 156(2) Typicality Effects, 158(2) Maps as a Radial Category, 160(2) Basic-Level Categories, 162(5) Natural versus Cultural Category Structures, 167(1) Multiple Representations, 168(2) Dual Representations: Common and Scientific, 168(1) Fuzzy Representations of Well-Defined Concepts, 169(1) Knowledge Representation, 170(23) Kinds of Knowledge Representation, 171(3) Kinds of Knowledge Schemata, 174(19) Propositional Schemata, 176(9) Image Schemata, 185(5) Event Schemata (Scripts and Plans), 190(3) Development and Application of Cognitive Schemata, 193(16) How Map Schemata Are Developed, 193(9) Physiological Bases for Map Schemata, 194(1) Developmental Bases for Map Schemata, 195(3) General-to-Specific Map Schemata, 198(4) How Map Schemata Are Selected, 202(3) How Map Schemata Are Used, 205(4) Conclusion, 209(4) II. HOW MAPS ARE IMBUED WITH MEANING 213(142) 5. A Primer on Semiotics for Understanding Map Representation 217(27) The Nature of Signs, 218(16) Models of the Sign, 219(3) Typology of Signs, 222(3) Typology of Discourse, 225(3) How Signs Signify: Specificity or Levels of Meaning, 228(4) Typology of Comprehension (or Miscomprehension), 232(2) The Nature of Sign Systems, 234(8) Dimensions of Semiosis, 234(4) Systemology, 238(7) Semiotic Economy, 239(1) Simultaneity versus Articulation, 240(1) Combinatorial Relations, 241(1) Application of the Semiotic Approach to Map Representation, 242(2) 6. A Functional Approach to Map Representation: The Semantics and Syntactics of Map Signs 244(66) The Nature of Map Signs-Map Semantics, 245(24) Sign-Vehicle as Mediator, 246(4) Referent as Mediator, 250(6) Interpretant as Mediator, 256(13) The Nature of Map Sign Systems-Map Syntactics: Logical Interrelationships, 269(38) Visual Variables and Syntactic Rules, 270(20) Static Visual Maps, 270(6) Static Tactile Maps, 276(2) Dynamic Visual Maps, 278(9) Dynamic Audio Maps, 287(3) Sign-Vehicle Sets, 290(5) Multiple Linked Sign Systems, 295(7) Maps as Signs, 302(3) Map Sign Comprehension, 305(2) Discussion, 307(3) 7. A Lexical Approach to Map Representation: Map Pragmatics 310(45) Meaning in Maps, 312(18) Space, Time, and Attribute Denotation, 312(9) Denoting Spatial Position, 313(2) Denoting Temporal Position, 315(2) Denoting Attributes of Position in Space-Time, 317(4) Specificity of Signs, 321(4) Singular versus General Signs, 321(2) Unambiguous versus Ambiguous Signs, 323(2) Monosemic versus Polysemic Sign Systems, 325(1) Directness of Reference: Literality of Interpretants, 325(2) Concreteness of Signs: Concept versus Phenomenon Representations, 327(2) Etymology and Cultural Specificity of Meaning, 329(1) Meaning of Maps, 330(21) Connotative Meaning of Map Signs, 331(7) Extrasignificant Codes, 332(4) A Typology of Map Connotation, 336(2) The Map Itself as an Implicit Code, 338(29) Connotation of Veracity: Truth and Reality, 338(2) Connotation of Integrity: Map Ethics, 340(2) Valuative Connotations: Judgments, 342(3) Connotations of Power: Territorial Control, 345(3) Incisive Connotations: Persuasion to Action, 348(1) Can Connotations Be Measured?, 349(2) Synopsis and Directions, 351(4) III. HOW MAPS ARE USED: APPLICATIONS IN GEOGRAPHIC VISUALIZATION 355(104) 8. GVIS: Facilitating Visual Thinking 361(40) A Model of Feature Matching, 362(5) Linking Perceptual Organization and Map Syntactics, 367(25) Indispensable Variables, 368(12) 2-D Space, 369(1) Simulated 3-D, 370(6) Time, 376(4) Scale and Resolution, 380(6) Space, 380(4) Attributes, 384(1) Time, 385(1) Spatial Feature Enhancement through Graphic Variable Manipulation, 386(15) Using Monochrome Variables, 387(2) Using Color Variables, 389(3) The Role of Categories and Schemata, 392(6) Conclusions, 398(3) 9. GVIS: Relationships in Space and Time 401(34) Feature Comparison: Looking for Relationships in Multidimensional Data, 401(21) Space, 402(7) Orientation, 409(2) Color, 411(5) Time, 416(2) Focusing, 418(1) Sound, 419(3) Space-Time Processes, 422(11) Categorizing Space-Time Phenomena, 423(2) Mapping Temporal Entities to Display Variables, 425(2) Exploring Space-Time Processes: Kinds of Interaction, 427(8) Process Tracking, 428(1) Postprocessing, 429(3) Process Steering, 432(1) Discussion, 433(2) 10. GVIS: Should We Believe What We See? 435(1) How to Judge "Truth" in GVIS, 435(12) Truth of Signs in the Display, 436(8) Truth of the Display as Sign: Seeing Wrong versus Not Seeing, 444(3) What "Truth" Is in GVIS, 447(9) Visual Thinking and Cognitive Gravity, 448(4) Public Presentation and Implicit Connotation, 452(4) Discussion, 456(3) Postscript 459(4) References 463(28) Author Index 491(6) Subject Index 497