Influencing Through Argument

Notes About the Updated Edition xv Robert Huber, 1909--1996: A Life of Influence and Integrity xvii Why Use Argument to Influence Others? 1(10) Argument Widely Used 1(1) The Psychological Need for Good Argument 2(1) Argument Defined 2(1) Argument Is Only One Phase of Persuasion 3(1) The Processes of Argument and the Processes of Reasoning 3(1) Argument and Emotion 4(1) The Study of Argument Versus the Study of Logic 4(1) Growing Demands for Argument 4(1) The Role of Argument 5(3) In Advocacy 5(1) In Propaganda 5(1) In Education and Learning 5(1) In Inquiries and Investigations 6(1) In Discussion 7(1) In Debate 7(1) In Rhetorical Criticism 8(1) Elements of the Study of Argument 8(1) Exercises 9(2) With What Kinds of Subjects Is Argument Effective? 11(12) Propositions as Subjects for Argument 11(1) Purpose of Speakers Using Argument 12(1) Types of Propositions 12(2) Fact 12(1) Value 13(1) Policy 13(1) Testing Your Proposition 14(5) Am I Interested or Can I Become in the Proposition? 14(1) Will My Audience Wish to Hear Me Discuss the Topic? 14(1) Is It Timely? 14(1) Is It Suitable for the Occasion? 15(1) Is It Narrow Enough to Be Covered Within the Time Limits? 15(1) Is It Suitable for Oral Presentation? 15(1) Is It Subject to Disagreement? 16(1) Is It Clear Rather than Ambiguous? 16(1) Is It Capable of Being Supported with Evidence? 17(1) Is It Significant Enough to Be Worthy of Discussion? 17(1) Is There a Basis for Comparison? 18(1) Does the Proposition Involve a Single Subject? 18(1) Wording the Proposition 19(2) General Occasions 19(1) Debates 19(1) Public Discussions 20(1) Exercises 21(2) Analysis and Definition 23(30) Analysis Defined 23(1) Rules for Good Analysis 24(4) Subdivide by One Principle 24(1) Avoid Subdivisions that Overlap 25(1) Uncover All the Parts 25(1) No Subdivision Should Equal the Whole Subject 26(1) Utilize a Significant Principle 26(1) Be Sure that a Proper Interrelationship Among the Headings Is Present 27(1) Discovering the Main Issues 28(2) Definition of Main Issues 28(2) Analysis for Uncovering Subissues 30(1) Discovering Main Issues According to Type of Proposition 30(4) Propositions of Fact 30(1) Propositions of Value 31(1) Propositions of Policy 32(2) Stock Issues and Stock Ways of Dividing Subjects 34(5) Chronological 34(1) Spatial 35(1) Topical 35(1) Psychological 36(1) Logical 37(2) Definition 39(4) Logical Definition 39(1) Definition by Example 40(1) Definition by Comparison 40(1) Definition by Contrast 40(1) Definition by Synonym 41(1) Definition by Etymology or Origin 41(1) Definition by Negation 41(1) Definition by Enumeration or Division 42(1) Definition by Authority 42(1) Definition by History 43(1) The Steps in Preliminary Analysis 43(1) Complete or Continuing Analysis 44(1) Analysis in Reading, Listening, Writing Essays, and Writing Examinations 45(2) Reading 45(1) Listening 45(1) Writing Essays 46(1) Writing Examinations 46(1) Exercises 47(6) Gathering Material for Building Arguments 53(18) Necessity of an Organized System of Gathering Material 53(1) Importance of Your Own Knowledge and Thinking 54(1) Exchanging Opinions and Knowledge with Others 55(1) Discussion 55(1) Personal Interviews 55(1) Letters and E-mail 56(1) Observation 56(1) Conducting Original Experiments and Research 57(1) Using the Library 58(6) Have a Research Plan 58(1) Know What You Want to Find Out 58(1) Develop Search Terms 59(1) Add Additional Goals and Key Words as Your Search 59(1) Progresses 59(1) Utilize Library Resources 59(1) Reference Materials 59(1) Online Resources 60(1) Periodicals 61(1) Books 62(1) Inter-Library Loan 62(1) United States Government Documents 63(1) Multimedia 63(1) Consult a Librarian for Additional Assistance 64(1) Internet Research 64(1) Recording Your Data 65(4) Exercises 69(2) Influencing Through Evidence 71(20) Definition of Evidence 71(1) Types of Evidence 72(2) Factual Examples 72(1) Statistics 72(1) Opinions of Authorities 73(1) Testimony of Lay Witnesses 73(1) Documents, Legal Papers, and the Like 73(1) Arguments to Validate Evidence from Authorities 74(3) The Authority Has Made a Study 74(1) The Authority Was Trained in Research 75(1) The Authority Is Free from Prejudice 75(1) The Authority Is Free from Exaggeration 76(1) The Authority Is Consistent 76(1) Arguments to Invalidate or Refute Evidence from Authorities 77(3) The Authority Quoted Did Not Make a Study 77(1) The Authority Quoted Was Not Trained in Research 78(1) The Authority Quoted Is Prejudiced 79(1) The Authority Quoted Is Guilty of Exaggeration 79(1) The Authority Quoted Is Guilty of Inconsistency 80(1) Arguments to Validate and Invalidate Statistics 80(5) Has the Unit of the Statistics Been Carefully Defined? 81(1) Are the Statistical Units an Accurate Index of What We Want to Know? 81(2) Are the Statistical Units Comparable in Terms of Size and Relevance? 83(1) Do Other Studies of the Same Nature Verify These Facts? 84(1) Tests of Ordinary Witnesses 85(2) Did the Witness Have the Opportunity to Observe the Happening Directly? 85(1) Was the Witness Physically Capable of Observing the Happening? 86(1) Is the Witness Capable of Accurate Reporting? 86(1) Is the Witness Free from Tendencies to Exaggerate? 86(1) Is the Witness Free from Personal Involvement? 86(1) Does the Testimony of the Witness Constitute an Admission? 86(1) Can It Pass the ``Hearsay'' Tests? 87(1) Tests for Documents and Legal Papers 87(1) Exercises 88(3) Influencing Through Induction 91(18) Propositions with Which Induction Is Effective 91(1) Induction Defined 92(1) Characteristics of Induction 92(1) The Use of Induction in Discovering or Verifying Knowledge 93(5) Induction and the Sampling Process 93(1) Induction and Public Opinion Polls 94(1) Induction and the Case-Study Method 95(1) Induction and Experimental Study 95(1) Induction and the Empirical Method 96(1) Induction and Universal Laws 97(1) Lines of Argument to Validate or Invalidate Induction 98(8) Are the Facts True? 98(1) Are the Examples Universal or Isolated Instances? 99(1) Do the Examples Cover a Sufficient Period of Time? 99(1) Are the Examples Cited Typical or Atypical? 100(1) Are There Significant Negative Instances? 101(2) Is the Conclusion Properly Stated? 103(1) The ``What Harm?'' or ``So What?'' Argument 104(2) Exercises 106(3) Influencing Through Deduction 109(26) Propositions with Which Deduction Is Effective 109(1) Deductive Reasoning Defined 109(1) The Syllogism and Its Parts 110(1) The Enthymeme 111(1) Types of Deduction 112(14) Categorical Deduction 112(1) The True or Proved Major Premise Versus the False or Unproved 113(1) The True or Proved Minor Premise Versus the False or Unproved 113(1) Distribution Versus Lack of Distribution of Terms 114(4) Four Terms, or the Fallacy of Equivocation 118(2) Negative Premises 120(1) Disjunctive Deduction 121(1) Using Disjunctive Deduction Effectively 122(1) Evaluating or Refuting Disjunctive Deduction 123(1) Hypothetical Deduction 124(1) Rules for Hypothetical Deduction 124(1) Using Hypothetical Deduction Effectively 125(1) Evaluating or Refuting Hypothetical Deduction 126(1) Sorites 126(1) Deduction in Argumentative Speeches 127(5) Proposition of Fact 128(1) Proposition of Value 128(1) Proposition of Policy 129(1) A Summary of Lines of Argument on Deduction 130(2) Exercises 132(3) Influencing Through Causal Reasoning 135(14) Propositions with Which Causal Reasoning Is Effective 135(1) Causal Reasoning Defined 136(1) Types of Causal Reasoning 137(2) Cause-to-Effect Reasoning 137(1) Effect-to-Cause Reasoning 137(1) Effect-to-Effect Reasoning 138(1) Argument from Sign Reasoning 139(1) Causal Lines of Argument 139(6) Does the Alleged Cause Have the Means, Power, Facilities, and/or Desire to Produce the Effect? 140(1) Is This the Sole Cause or Are There Other Causes? 140(1) Is This Cause Significant or Insignificant? 141(1) Is This an Original or Contributing Cause? 142(1) Are There or Will There Be Counteracting Causes? 143(1) Has Coincidence Been Mistaken for Causal Relationship? 144(1) Summary of the Lines of Argument on Causal Reasoning 145(1) Exercises 145(4) Influencing Through Reasoning from Analogy 149(8) Propositions with Which Reasoning from Analogy Is Effective 149(1) Reasoning from Analogy Defined 150(1) Relationship to Induction 151(1) Relationship to Causal Reasoning 151(1) Lines of Argument for Reasoning from Analogy 152(2) Do the Similarities Outweigh the Differences? 152(1) Do the Differences Outweigh the Similarities? 152(1) Are the Similarities or Differences Significant or Insignificant? 153(1) Summary of Lines of Argument by Analogy 153(1) Summary of the Interrelationships of the Various Types of Reasoning 154(1) Exercises 155(2) Refutation: Blocking the Arguments of Others 157(20) Definition 157(1) Refutation by Challenging Analysis and Definition 158(1) Refutation Through Minimizing 159(1) Refutation by Denying the Evidence 159(1) Refutation by Demonstrating the Opposite 160(1) Refutation by Exposing Fallacies in Reasoning 161(1) Refutation by Exposing Special Types of Fallacies 161(6) Arguing in a Circle 161(1) Assuming a More General Truth that Involves the Point at Issue 161(1) The Fallacious Question 162(1) Appeals to Prejudice (Argumentum ad Populum) 163(1) Argument Involving Persons (Argumentum ad Hominem) 163(1) Shifting Ground 164(1) Argument from Tradition and Custom 165(1) An Appeal to the Ignorance of the Opposite 165(1) False Synthesis 166(1) Fallacy of Division 166(1) Fallacy of Equivocation 167(1) Refutation by Special Methods 167(7) Reducing the Argument to an Absurdity (Reductio ad Absurdum) 167(1) Adopting Opposing Arguments (Turning the Tables) 168(1) Method of Residues 169(1) The Dilemma 170(1) Exposing Inconsistencies 171(2) Exposing Irrelevant Arguments 173(1) Exercises 174(3) Logic Is Not Enough: Use Other Sources of Persuasion, Too 177(28) Constituent Elements in Persuasion: Logos, Pathos, Ethos, and Style 177(1) This Chapter---A Suggested Outline for Further Study 178(1) Pathos: Psychological or Emotional Appeals 178(10) Capturing and Holding Attention 178(2) Appeals to Basic Wants 180(1) Appeals to Blocked Wants --- The Hate Object 180(1) Appeals to Symbols of Identification 181(1) Appeals to Emotionally Loaded Words 182(1) Appeals to Sentiments 182(1) Associated-Attitude Appeal 183(1) Appeals to Prejudice 183(1) Other Factors in Pathos 184(1) How to Use Emotional Appeals with Argumentative Speeches 184(1) Appeals in Main Headings 185(1) Use in the Development of Each Argument 186(1) Emotional Appeals in the Conclusion 186(1) Psychological Factors Within the Introduction 186(2) Style: Making the Speech Pictorial, Vivid, Stirring 188(8) Choosing Effective Words 188(1) Image-Bearing Words 188(1) Personal Pronouns and Other Personal Reference Words 188(1) Action Verbs 188(1) Simple Words 189(1) Utilizing Effective Sentence Structure 189(1) Simple Sentences Instead of Complex 189(1) Periodic Sentences Instead of Loose 190(1) Balanced Structure 190(1) Parallel Structure 190(1) ``Grouping of Three'' 191(1) Utilizing Special Rhetorical Devices 191(1) The Direct Question 191(1) The Rhetorical Question 192(1) Dialogue 192(1) Figures of Speech 192(1) Literary and Biblical Quotations 192(1) The Allusion 192(1) Comparison and Contrast 193(1) The Long Illustration---Human Interest Story 193(1) Repetition and Restatement 194(1) Keeping the Speech Moving Toward a Goal 194(1) Partition 194(1) Forecast 195(1) Summaries 195(1) Conclusion 195(1) Suspense and Climax 195(1) Ethos: Persuasiveness of the Speaker 196(9) The Power of Position and Reputation 196(1) The Power of Personality 197(1) Sincerity 197(1) Congeniality 197(1) Consideration and Kindness 197(1) Sense of Humor and Proportion 197(1) The Power of an Effective Voice 198(1) Develop a Basically Pleasing Voice 198(1) Develop an Interesting Voice 199(2) The Power of Effective Use of the Body 201(1) Constant Eye Contact 202(1) Using Facial Expression 202(1) Using Effective Head Gestures 202(1) Using Effective Arm Gestures 203(1) Every Gesture Has Three Parts 203(1) Developing Good Posture 203(1) Move to Enhance the Speech 204(1) Enthusiastic Desire to Obtain a Response---Avoid Artificialities 204(1) Exercises 205