International Environmental Law in a Nutshell

Preface iii Acknowledgments vii Table of Treaties xxv Sources and Forms of International Environmental Law 1(29) Treaties 4(10) Interpretation of Treaties 8(4) Conflict With Other Treaties 12(2) Custom 14(5) General Principles of Law 19(2) Judicial Decisions 21(3) Other Sources of Law 24(6) The Historical Continuum 30(18) The Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment 1972 30(5) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982 35(2) World Commission on Environment and Development 37(2) United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1992 39(4) World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 (WSSD) 43(5) Implementation 48(57) Institutions and Organizations 49(10) Global Organizations 50(3) Regional Organizations 53(1) Specific Treaty Organizations 54(1) Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOS) 55(4) Compliance Mechanisms 59(5) Diplomatic Avenues 64(1) Judicial Remedies 65(29) Jurisdiction 67(4) Accountability for Transboundary Environmental Harms 71(1) Application of SR 72(1) Fault Liability 73(1) Strict and Absolute Liability 74(2) Attribution, Causation, Exhaustion of Local Remedies, and Reparation 76(3) Trail Smelter Arbitration 79(2) International Liability for Injurious Consequences Arising Out Of Acts Not Prohibited By International Law 81(3) Civil Liability 84(2) Treaty Overlay 86(3) Civil Liability Litigation 89(3) Conclusion 92(2) The Effectiveness of International Environmental Law 94(2) Institutional Concerns 94(2) The Relationship Between IEL and Domestic Law 96(9) Treaties and Domestic Law 97(4) Custom and Domestic Law 101(4) Population 105(22) Nature of Population Growth 105(3) Decreasing Resources 108(3) Environmental Threats 111(5) Remedial Objectives 116(5) Theories on Population Growth 116(1) The Malthusian Apocalypse 116(2) Neo-Malthusian, Economic Transition and Redistributional Theories of Population Growth 118(2) The Way Forward 120(1) Legal Response 121(6) Biodiversity 127(47) Nature of the Problem 127(2) Environmental Impacts 129(2) Causes 131(1) Remedial Objectives 132(1) Legal Response 133(41) The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 133(2) Principles of Equity and Resource Transfers 135(1) Common Concern of Humankind 136(1) Access to Genetic Resources 137(2) Biotechnology 139(3) Financial Transfers 142(1) Principles of Sustainable Development (Conservation and Sustainable Use) 143(2) All Parties (Including Developing Countries) 145(2) Developed Countries 147(1) Institutions 148(1) Relationship to Other Conventions 149(2) Cartegena Protocol on Biosafety 151(5) International Treaties Related to Biological Diversity 156(1) The 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) 156(1) Commitments 157(3) Continued Trade in Listed Species 160(2) The 1972 UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of The World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) 162(3) The 1971 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) 165(3) The 1979 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention) 168(3) Regional Treaties and Agreements Related to Biodiversity 171(3) Global Climate Change 174(52) Climatic Facts 174(6) Increasing GHG Emissions 175(2) A Warming Trend 177(3) Human Culpability 180(5) The Nay Sayers 181(4) Possible Impacts 185(3) Remedial Objectives 188(3) Legal Response 191(35) Substantive Obligations 191(1) UNFCCC 191(1) History and Overview 191(2) The Comprehensive Approach 193(2) Commitments 195(2) The Kyoto Protocol 197(1) History 198(2) Overview & Assessment 200(1) Institutions and Implementation 201(1) Conference of the Parties (COP) 201(3) Secretariat 204(1) Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice 204(1) Subsidiary Body for Implementation 205(1) Financial Mechanism 205(2) Outstanding Issues 207(1) Joint Implementation 207(4) Technology Transfers & Financing 211(2) Adaptation 213(2) Costs & Benefits 215(4) Implications 219(1) Research and Development in Alternative Energy 219(2) An Inclusive Convention 221(1) Realistic Long-Term Implementation Strategies 222(4) Ozone Depletion 226(20) The Nature of the Problem 227(2) Causes of the Problem 229(3) Environmental Impacts 232(1) Remedial Objectives 233(2) Legal Response 235(9) The Vienna Ozone Convention 235(1) The Montreal Protocol 236(1) Adjustments and Amendments 237(5) Transfers 242(1) Trade Restrictions 243(1) Technological and Financial Assistance 244(1) The Impact of the Regime 244(2) Antarctica 246(28) Geophysical Sketch 246(4) Scientific and Archeological Importance 250(1) Economic Concerns 251(2) Environmental Issues 253(2) Geo--Political Significance 255(1) Legal Response 256(18) Overview 256(3) The 1959 Antarctic Treaty 259(1) The 1972 Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972 Seals Convention) 260(2) 1980 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980 CCAMLR) 262(2) 1988 Antarctic Mineral Resources Convention (CRAMRA) 264(1) 1991 Antarctic Environment Protocol 265(2) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 267(1) Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora 268(1) Waste Disposal and Management 269(1) Prevention of Marine Pollution 270(1) Area Protection and Management 271(3) Toxic and Hazardous Substances 274(46) Nature of the Problem 274(3) Sources 277(3) Environmental Impacts & Pathways 280(7) Impacts 280(5) Pathways 285(2) Remedial Objectives 287(8) Legal Response 295(25) Toxic and Hazardous Substances in General 295(1) Prior Informed Consent 296(1) 2002 FAO International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides 296(4) 1987 UNEP London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade (1987 UNEP London Guidelines) 300(3) Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (Rotterdam Convention) 303(3) Hazardous Wastes 306(1) Transboundary Movement 306(1) The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal (Basel Convention) 307(1) Environmentally Sound Management 307(1) Transboundary Movement 308(5) The Convention on the Ban of Imports Into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes Within Africa (Bamako Convention) 313(1) The International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea (HNS Convention) 314(1) Elimination and Reductions at Source 315(3) Other Regional Agreements 318(2) Land-Based Pollution 320(20) Nature of the Problem 320(1) Sources and Environmental Impacts 321(5) Remedial Objectives 326(2) Legal Response 328(12) The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 328(2) Montreal Guidelines for the Protection of the Marine Environment Against Pollution From Land-Based Sources 330(1) The Global Program of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment From Land-Based Activities and the Washington Declaration on Protection of the Marine Environment From Land-Based Activities 331(2) Regional Treaties 333(7) Vessel-Based Pollution 340(28) Nature of the Problem 340(4) Environmental Impacts 344(2) Harm Caused by the Physical Properties of Oil 344(1) Harm Caused by the Toxic Properties of Oil 345(1) Causes of Vessel-Based Oil Pollution 346(2) Remedial Objectives 348(2) Legal Response 350(1) Operational Pollution 350(1) The 1973/1978 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships (MARPOL) 350(18) The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 355(3) Accidental Pollution 358(1) International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC) 359(1) International Convention Relating To Intervention on the High Seas In Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties (1969 Intervention Convention and 1973 Protocol) 360(2) Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Cooperation for Pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances, 2000 (HNS Protocol) 362(1) Liability 363(1) State Responsibility 363(1) Civil Liability 363(1) 1969 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (1969 CLC) 363(3) International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (1971 Fund Convention) 366(2) Dumping 368(14) Nature of the Problem 368(1) Sources and Environmental Impacts 369(1) Remedial Objectives 370(1) Legal Response 371(11) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 372(1) Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (1972 London Convention) 372(4) 1996 Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 376(4) Regional Treaties 380(2) Conservation of Marine Living Resources 382(32) Nature of the Problem 382(1) Sources and Impacts 383(5) Remedial Objectives 388(4) Legal Response 392(22) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 392(1) Overview 392(1) Dispute Settlement under UNCLOS---The Bluefin Tuna Case 392(3) Jurisdiction Zones 395(1) Territorial Sea 395(1) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) 396(2) Continental Shelf 398(1) High Seas 398(1) The Species Approach 399(1) Straddling Stocks 400(2) Highly Migratory Species (HMS) 402(1) Marine Mammals 403(1) The Special Case of Seals 404(1) Anadromous Species 405(1) Catadromous Species 406(1) UNEP Regional Seas Programme 406(2) International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW) 408(3) Driftnet Fishing 411(3) Transboundary Air Pollution 414(20) Nature of the Problem 414(1) Causes and Sources 415(1) Environmental Impacts 415(3) Remedial Objectives 418(1) Legal Response 419(15) Custom 419(2) Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) 421(1) Overview 421(3) Sulphur Emissions 424(1) Nitrogen Oxides 425(2) Volatile Organic Compounds 427(1) United States---Canada 428(3) United States---Mexico 431(3) Transboundary Water Pollution 434(37) Nature of the Problem 434(2) Sources of Environmental Harm 436(2) Environmental Impacts 438(2) Remedial Measures 440(1) Legal Response 440(31) Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses 440(3) Communication: Notification, Consultation and Negotiation 443(3) Equitable Utilization 446(5) Obligation Not to Cause Transboundary Harm 451(2) Further Protections 453(1) The Question of Groundwater 454(1) Regional and Bilateral Agreements 455(1) 1992 ECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and Lakes (ECE Treaty) 456(4) The Rhine 460(3) United States---Canada 463(3) United States---Mexico 466(5) Desertification 471(13) Nature of the Problem 471(2) Impacts of Desertification 473(1) Causes of Desertification 474(2) Remedial Objectives 476(1) Legal Response 477(7) Commitments 478(1) Developing Countries 478(2) Developed Countries 480(1) Implementation 480(4) Nuclear Damage 484(55) Nature of the Problem 484(10) Use and Testing of Nuclear Weapons 486(5) Civilian Nuclear Energy 491(2) Nuclear Waste 493(1) Remedial Objectives 494(2) Legal Response 496(43) Use and Testing of Nuclear Weapons 497(1) Treaty Overlay 497(2) Nuclear Testing 499(5) Disarmed Nuclear Materials 504(6) Customary Law 510(1) Nuclear Testing 510(10) Use of Nuclear Weapons 520(3) Civilian Nuclear Energy 523(1) Nuclear Safety 523(1) 1994 Convention on Nuclear Safety 524(3) The 1986 IAEA Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (Notification Convention) 527(1) The 1986 IAEA Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency (Assistance Convention) 528(1) Liability 529(1) State Responsibility 529(3) Civil Liability 532(7) The Future of IEL 539(22) Foundational & Systemic Norms 540(7) Sustainable Development 540(2) The Common Law of Humankind 542(5) Primary Rules and Principles 547(9) Principles 547(2) Rules 549(2) Embryonic Rules and Principles 551(3) Clash of Primary Obligations 554(2) Secondary Rules and State Responsibility 556(1) The Actors in IEL 557(4) Appendix 561(28) Index 589