Interpreting the Medical Literature

Preface ix CHAPTER ONE Tasting an Article 1(12) Reasons to Read 3(2) The Bones of an Article 5(3) Approaching an Article 8(5) CHAPTER TWO Study Design: General Considerations 13(18) Descriptive Studies 14(3) Explanatory Studies 17(9) More Confusing Terminology 26(3) Summary 29(2) CHAPTER THREE Study Design: The Case-Control Approach 31(24) Advantages of the Case-Control Design 32(1) Problems of Case-Control Designs 33(18) Summary 51(4) CHAPTER FOUR Study Design: The Cross-Sectional and Follow-up Approaches 55(24) Cross-Sectional Designs 57(12) Follow-up Studies 69(7) Summary 76(3) CHAPTER FIVE Study Design: The Experimental Approach 79(32) Enrollment: Who Gets In 81(7) Allocation: Sorting Subjects & Controls 88(8) Follow-up 96(6) Analysis 102(4) Scope 106(1) Summary 107(4) CHAPTER SIX Study Design: Variations 111(18) Real-World Considerations 112(3) Practical Constraints 115(9) Ethical Concerns 124(2) Summary 126(3) CHAPTER SEVEN Making Measurements 129(16) Reliability & Validity 130(1) Variability of the Unsystematic Sort 130(3) Systematic Error 133(6) Reducing Measurement Error 139(4) Summary 143(2) CHAPTER EIGHT Analysis: Statistical Significance 145(16) Inference 146(1) Sampling Variability 147(1) The Null Hypothesis & Statistical Significance 148(1) Some Problems of Statistical Significance 149(5) Beta Errors & Statistical Power 154(3) Confidence Intervals 157(1) Summary 158(3) CHAPTER NINE Analysis: Some Statistical Tests 161(16) Tests for Categorical Data 163(3) Tests for Continuous Data 166(2) Correlation 168(4) Regression 172(3) Summary 175(2) CHAPTER TEN Interpretation: Sensitivity, Specificity, and Predictive Value 177(26) Prevalence 183(3) Making Choices 186(1) Likelihood Ratios 187(5) ROC Curves 192(1) Modeling 193(2) Spectrum 195(2) Standards 197(2) Summary 199(4) CHAPTER ELEVEN Interpretation: Risk 203(22) Expressing Statements of Risk 204(9) Risk Differences 213(3) Balancing Risks 216(2) Costs & Benefits 218(5) Summary 223(2) CHAPTER TWELVE Interpretation: Causes 225(22) Confounding 226(3) Dealing with Confounding 229(8) Making Associations into Causes 237(7) Summary 244(3) CHAPTER THIRTEEN Case Series, Editorials, and Reviews 247(20) Case Series 248(8) Editorials & Letters to the Editor 256(2) Reviews 258(6) Summary 264(3) CHAPTER FOURTEEN A Final Word 267(12) Clarity 268(2) Apologies, Tentative Conclusions, Self-Criticism, & the Like 270(1) Critical Assistance 271(4) The Final Word 275(1) Summary 276(3) Index 279