Johnson, David W.; Johnson, Roger T.

Learning Together and Alone : Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Learning

PREFACE ix 1 COOPERATIVE, COMPETITIVE, AND INDIVIDUALISTIC LEARNING 1(12) Structuring Learning Goals 3(2) Cooperative Efforts 5(1) Competitive Efforts 6(1) Individualistic Efforts 7(3) The Choice: Appropriately Using Interdependence 10(1) What Is in This Book? 11(1) Summary 11(2) 2 COOPERATIVE LEARNING 13(36) Types of Cooperative Learning Groups 14(3) Teacher's Role: Being "A Guide on the Side" 17(1) Preinstructional Decisions 18(10) Structuring the Task and Cooperative Structure 28(3) The Cooperative Lesson 31(11) Monitoring and Intervening 42(3) Evaluating Learning and Processing Interaction 45(1) Summary and Conclusions 46(3) 3 INFORMAL COOPERATIVE LEARNING 49(10) The Cooperative Classroom 50(1) Appropriate Use of Lecturing 51(4) Informal Cooperative Learning Groups 55(1) Lecturing with Informal Cooperative Learning Groups 56(1) Conclusions 57(2) 4 COOPERATIVE BASE GROUPS 59(10) Cooperative Base Groups 59(1) Class Base Groups 60(1) School Base Groups 61(1) The Advisee or Home Room Base Group 62(1) Cooperative Learning and Social Support 63(1) Need for Long-Term Permanent Relationships 64(3) Conclusions 67(2) 5 BASIC ELEMENTS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING 69(22) Making Potential Group Performance a Reality 70(4) Forces Hindering Group Performance 74(1) Applying the Basics of Cooperation 75(1) Positive Interdependence: We Instead of Me 75(5) Individual Accountability/Personal Responsibility 80(2) Face-to-Face Promotive Interaction 82(1) Interpersonal and Small Group Skills 82(2) Group Processing 84(3) Positive Interdependence and Intellectual Conflict 87(1) Reducing Problem Behaviors 88(1) Summary 88(3) 6 INTEGRATED USE OF ALL TYPES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING 91(12) Fifty-Minute Class Session 91(2) Ninety-Minute Class Session 93(2) Examples of Integrated Use of Cooperative Learning 95(3) The Evolution of Cooperative Learning 98(2) Personalizing the Learning Environment 100(1) Conclusions 101(2) 7 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION 103(22) Conducting Assessments 103(3) Making Assessments Meaningful and Manageable 106(2) Assessment Procedures 108(1) Setting and Managing Learning Goals 108(2) Test and Examinations 110(1) Compositions and Presentations 111(2) Individual and Group Projects 113(1) Portfolios 113(2) Observing 115(1) Interviewing 116(1) Attitude Questionnaires 117(1) Learning Logs and Journals 118(1) Total Quality Learning 118(1) Teaching Teams and Assessment 119(1) Giving Grades 120(2) Summary 122(3) 8 STRUCTURING COMPETITIVE LEARNING 125(26) Nature of Competition 127(2) Characteristics of Competition 129(6) Establishing a Competitive Structure 135(8) Essential Elements of Competition 143(5) Summary 148(3) 9 STRUCTURING INDIVIDUALISTIC LEARNING 151(12) Nature and Appropriate Use of Individualistic Learning 151(2) Essential Elements of Individualistic Situations 153(2) Establishing an Individualistic Structure 155(4) Individualistic Skills 159(2) Summary 161(2) 10 INTEGRATED USE OF COOPERATIVE, COMPETITIVE, AND INDIVIDUALISTIC LEARNING 163(6) Appropriately Using Interdependence 163(1) Frequency of Use of Each Goal Structure 164(1) Integrated Use of All Three Goal Structures 165(1) Example of an Integrated Unit 165(2) Helpful Hints for Conducting Integrated Units 167(1) Conclusions 167(2) 11 REFLECTIONS 169(14) Changing Paradigm of Teaching 169(3) Using Cooperative Learning Appropriately 172(3) Integrated Use of All Three Goal Structures 175(4) Teaching Students Social Skills 179(1) Utilizing Creative Conflict 179(1) Empowering Staff through Cooperative Teams 180(1) Creating a Learning Community 180(1) In Retrospect 181(2) APPENDIX A: GOAL STRUCTURES, INTERACTION AMONG STUDENTS, AND INSTRUCTIONAL OUTCOMES 183(36) History of Cooperative Learning 184(11) Research on Social Interdependence 195(1) Interaction Patterns 196(6) Learning Outcomes 202(1) Effort to Achieve 202(4) Interpersonal Relationships 206(5) Psychological Health and Psychological Adjustment 211(3) Social Skills 214(2) Reciprocal Relationships among the Three Outcomes 216(2) Reducing the Discrepancy 218(1) REFERENCES 219(14) GLOSSARY 233(10) INDEX 243