Mars : An Introduction to Its Interior, Surface and Atmosphere

Preface xi Introduction to Mars 1(27) Historical observations 1(4) Pre-telescopic observations 1(1) Telescopic observations from Earth and space 2(3) Spacecraft missions 5(14) US missions to Mars 8(7) Soviet/Russian Mars missions 15(3) European Space Agency Mars missions 18(1) Japanese missions to Mars 19(1) Mars' orbital properties 19(2) Orbital elements 19(2) Mars' orbital properties with respect to the Sun and Earth 21(1) Physical properties of Mars 21(2) Rotation 21(2) Size 23(1) Mass and density 23(1) Martian moons 23(5) Phobos 24(1) Deimos 25(1) Origin of Phobos and Deimos 26(1) Possible other satellites? 27(1) Trojan asteroids at Mars orbit 27(1) Formation of Mars and early planetary evolution 28(23) Formation of Mars 28(4) Accretion 28(2) Heavy bombardment 30(2) Differentiation and core formation 32(9) Planetary heating 32(1) Geochronology 33(4) Martian meteorites 37(3) Differentiation and core formation on Mars 40(1) Bulk composition of Mars 41(3) Thermal evolution of Mars 44(7) Isotopic and geologic constraints on thermal models 44(3) Thermal models for Mars 47(4) Geophysical measurements and inferred interior structure 51(21) Shape and geodetic data 51(3) Shape of Mars 51(1) Coordinate systems 52(2) Gravity and topography 54(6) Gravity analysis 54(3) Gravity anomalies, isostacy, and crustal thickness 57(3) Topography 60(1) Seismic data 60(4) Heat flow 64(2) Conduction 65(1) Convection 65(1) Martian heat flux 66(1) Magnetics 66(4) Active dynamo 67(1) Remnant magnetization 68(2) Interior structure of Mars 70(2) Surface characteristics 72(30) Albedo and color 72(3) Albedo 72(1) Color 73(2) Surface roughness and structure 75(1) Crustal composition 76(17) Methods of compositional analysis 76(5) Crustal composition from remote sensing observations 81(4) Crustal composition from martian meteorite analysis 85(2) Crustal composition from in situ analysis 87(5) Summary of martian crustal composition 92(1) Physical characteristics of surface materials 93(9) Regolith 94(3) Thermal inertia and rock abundance 97(3) Dust 100(2) Geology 102(61) Geologic terms and techniques 102(8) Rocks and minerals 102(1) Stratigraphic techniques 103(1) Crater statistical analysis 104(6) Martian geologic periods 110(1) Geologic processes 110(51) Impact cratering 110(10) Volcanism 120(12) Tectonism 132(8) Mass movement 140(1) Eolian features 141(6) Fluvial processes 147(4) Polar and glacial processes 151(10) Geologic evolution of Mars 161(2) Atmospheric conditions and evolution 163(24) Characteristics of the present martian atmosphere 163(1) Atmospheric physics 164(7) Barometric equation and scale height 164(2) Conduction 166(1) Convection 166(3) Radiation 169(2) Present-day martian atmosphere 171(14) Atmospheric structure 171(2) Clouds and dust storms 173(4) Winds 177(4) Atmospheric circulation 181(2) Present-day martian climate 183(2) Evolution of the martian atmosphere 185(2) History of water on Mars 187(16) Origin of water on Mars 187(3) Water versus other volatiles 190(1) Water on early Mars 191(3) Water in the post-Noachian period 194(5) Martian oceans 194(3) Obliquity cycles and climate change 197(2) Present-day stability and distribution of H2O 199(4) Models of subsurface H2O distribution 200(1) Direct detection of subsurface H2O 201(2) Search for life 203(13) Martian conditions relevant to biology 203(1) Viking biology experiments 204(3) Martian meteorite ALH84001 207(1) Atmospheric methane 208(1) Future missions 209(3) Planetary protection issues 212(4) Looking ahead 216(5) References 221(34) Appendix: Mission reports 255(2) Index 257