Fasham, Michael J. R.

Ocean Biogeochemistry : The Role of the Ocean Carbon Cycle in Global Change

Introduction 1(1) Acknowledgements 2(1) References 2(1) Biogeochemical Provinces: Towards a JGOFS Synthesis 3(16) Plankton Community Structure and Distribution 3(2) Partitioning the Oceans 5(3) Primary Production in Ocean Domains and Provinces 8(3) Adding up Global PP Observations 11(1) Bacterial Production and DOC Flux 11(3) A Provincial Outlook 14(5) Acknowledgements 14(1) References 14(5) Physical Transport of Nutrients and the Maintenance of Biological Production 19(34) Introduction 19(2) Global Overturning Circulation and Nutrient Transport 21(4) Overturning Circulation and Water-Mass Distributions 21(1) Southern Ocean 22(2) Nutrient Supply to the Northern Basins 24(1) Summary 25(1) Convection 25(4) Vertical Transfer of Nutrients 25(1) Biophysical Interactions and Convection 25(3) Limited Role of Convection 28(1) Summary 28(1) Wind-Driven Circulations: Gyres and Boundary Currents 29(6) Wind-Induced Upwelling and Gyre Circulations 29(1) Gyre-Scale Circulations 29(1) Subduction and Fluid Transfer into the Seasonal Boundary Layer 30(1) Oligotrophic Subtropical Gyres 31(2) Western Boundary Transport of Nutrients 33(2) Summary 35(1) Smaller-Scale Circulations: Mesoscale Eddies, Waves and Sub-Mesoscale Fronts 35(7) Formation of Mesoscale Eddies and Sub-Mesoscale Fronts 35(1) Local Response to Planetary Waves, Eddies and Fronts 36(4) Far Field Effects: Eddy Transport and Diffusion 40(1) Summary 41(1) Interannual and Long-Term Variability 42(4) Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean Changes: ENSO 42(1) North Atlantic Oscillation 43(2) Changes in Overturning Circulation 45(1) Summary 46(1) Conclusions 46(7) Acknowledgements 47(1) Notes 47(2) References 49(4) Continental Margin Exchanges 53(46) Introduction 53(3) Recycling Systems 56(3) Export Systems 59(1) Coastal Upwelling Systems 60(1) California Current System 61(1) Humboldt Current System 62(1) Benguela Current System 63(1) Monsoonal Upwelling Systems 63(1) Biogeochemical Budgeting 64(3) The Arctic Shelves 67(12) Introduction 67(2) The Arctic Ocean As a Mediterranean, Shelf-Dominated Sea 69(2) The Shelves of the Arctic Ocean 71(2) Barents Shelf 73(1) Kara Shelf 73(1) Laptev Shelf 74(1) East Siberian and Chukchi Shelves 74(1) Beaufort Shelf 74(1) The Mackenzie Shelf of the Beaufort Sea as a Case Study 75(1) Shelf to Basin Sediment Transport in the Arctic 76(1) CH4, DMS (Dimethyl-Sulphide) Production in the Arctic 77(1) A Budget for the Arctic Shelves 77(1) Global Change; Speculation on Consequences for Arctic Shelves 78(1) Marginal Seas 79(20) High Latitude Marginal Seas 79(1) Semi-Enclosed Marginal Seas 80(2) Initial Synthesis 82(2) Future Research 84(4) Summary 88(1) Acknowledgments 89(1) References 89(6) Appendix 3.1 - Continental Margins: Site Descriptions 95(4) Phytoplankton and Their Role in Primary, New, and Export Production 99(24) Introduction 99(13) A Brief Introduction to Phytoplankton 99(2) Photosynthesis and Primary Production 101(1) Measuring Photosynthesis and Net Primary Production in the Sea 102(1) A Brief History of the Measurement of Primary Productivity in the Oceans 102(1) Quantifying Global Net Primary Productivity in the Oceans 103(3) Export, New and 'True New' Production 106(1) Elemental Ratios and Constraints on New Production 107(1) New Production, Export Production, and Net Community Production 107(1) Measurement of New Production 108(1) Measurement of Net Community Production 109(1) Measurement of Export Production 109(2) Summary of Methods 111(1) Synthesis 112(11) Physical Controls of Export Fluxes: the Importance of Functional Groups 115(1) Calcium Carbonate Precipitation 116(1) Primary, New and Export Production and the Global Carbon Cycle on Longer Time Scales 116(2) References 118(5) Carbon Dioxide Fluxes in the Global Ocean 123(22) Introduction 123(1) The Oceans' Influence on Atmospheric CO2 123(4) The Ocean Sets the Steady-State Atmospheric CO2 Concentration 123(2) The Pre-Industrial Steady State 125(1) Pre-Industrial North-South Transports 126(1) How Big is the Global Ocean Sink? 127(5) 1-D Models Calibrated with 14C 127(1) 3-D Models of the Ocean Carbon Cycle 127(1) 13C Changes with Time in the Ocean 128(1) Atmospheric Observations 128(1) Observations of the Air-Sea Flux 129(1) Preformed Total Carbon Methods and the Ocean Inventory of CO2 130(2) Summary of Recent Estimates of the Ocean Sink 132(1) What Processes Control Air-Sea CO2 Flux? 132(6) Patterns in the Global Survey 132(1) Comparison Using Models 133(5) Modelled Future Uptake of Anthropogenic CO2 138(1) Variability in the CO2 Signal 138(2) Seasonal Variation 138(1) Inter-Annual Variation 138(2) The Gas Transfer Velocity 140(1) Conclusion: the Next Ten Years 141(4) Acknowledgements 141(1) References 141(4) Water Column Biogeochemistry below the Euphotic Zone 145(12) Introduction 145(1) The Twilight Zone: Biology, Biogeochemical Processes and Fluxes 146(3) Biology of the Twilight Zone 146(1) Nature of the Exported Material and Processes 147(1) Microbial Production of Nitrous Oxide 148(1) The Fluxes of Biogenic Matter versus Depth 149(2) The Export Flux out of the Euphotic Zone 149(1) The Export Flux towards the Ocean's Interior (>1000 m) 150(1) The Variable Composition of the World Ocean Waters along the Conveyor Belt 151(1) Conclusions and Perspectives 152(5) The Ventilation Depth and the v-Ratio 153(1) The Role of Mineral Ballasts in the Export of Carbon to the Ocean Interior 153(1) References 153(4) The Impact of Climate Change and Feedback Processes on the Ocean Carbon Cycle 157(38) Introduction 157(2) Climate and Change - Present Status 157(2) Examples of Feedbacks in the Present and the Geological Past 159(1) Feedbacks 159(3) Definition 159(1) Identification 159(1) Classification 160(1) Magnitude 160(1) Evolution 161(1) Interactions between Feedbacks 161(1) Scales and Response Times 161(1) Degree of Confidence - Understanding Feedbacks 162(1) What do Current Models Predict? 162(2) Status of Our Understanding of Feedbacks 164(1) Nutrient Dynamics 164(1) Phytoplankton and Carbon Limitation 164(3) Atmospheric Supply of Nutrients 164(1) Nitrogen Fixation 165(1) Changes in Nutrient Uptake Stoichiometry - the Redfield Ratio 166(1) Export Production and Remineralisation in the Deep Ocean 167(1) The Calcifiers 167(3) Biogeochemistry and Feedbacks 168(1) Global Distributions 168(1) Controlling Factors, Forcing and Modelling 169(1) A Case Study - the Bering Sea 169(1) Iron Supply to the Oceans 170(4) How Much of the Ocean Is Iron-Poor? 170(1) The Supply of Iron to the Ocean 170(1) Atmospheric Deposition of Iron versus Upwelling Supply 170(1) Dust Supply - Global Maps and Fluxes 171(1) Dust Transport - from Soil to Phytoplankton 171(1) Response by the Biota - Detection 171(1) The Future - Climate Change and Dust Deposition 172(2) A Case Study - Uncertainties in Projection 174(1) Dimethyl Sulphide and the Biota 174(2) The CLAW Hypothesis 174(1) What Produces DMSP/DMS? 175(1) Global Distributions of DMS 175(1) The Haptophyte Connection 176(1) UV-B and Ozone Depletion 176(2) Present Status of Ozone Depletion 176(1) Phytoplankton and Primary Production 177(1) Dissolved Organic Matter and Heterotrophic Bacteria 177(1) Pelagic Community Response 178(1) The Future 178(1) Summary of Biotic Feedbacks 178(1) Climate - Variability versus Change 179(4) Climate Change 179(1) Climate Variability 180(1) Regime Shifts 181(2) Unexpected Biological Responses to Climate Change 183(1) Modeling - Future Goals 183(2) The Future 185(1) Detection and Projection 185(1) Does the 'Initial' Condition Still Exist? 185(1) The Need for a Regional Approach 185(1) A New Definition of Biogeochemical Provinces? 186(1) Summary 186(9) Acknowledgements 187(1) References 187(8) Benthic Processes and the Burial of Carbon 195(22) Introduction 195(1) Processes of Transport and Turnover of Material in the Deep Ocean 196(3) Transfer of Organic Material from the Surface to the Deep Ocean 196(1) Benthic Carbon Turnover Processes 197(2) Quantitative Estimates of Carbon Deposition and Carbon Turnover 199(5) Strategies for Quantification of Benthic Fluxes 199(1) Regional Assessments of Deep-Ocean Fluxes 200(1) Global Estimates of Deep Ocean Carbon Deposition and Remineralization 201(3) Proxy Indicators of Paleoproductivity 204(7) Estimates Based on Organic Carbon Burial Rates 204(1) Estimates Based on Biomarker Accumulation Rates 205(1) Estimates Based on Barium Accumulation Rates 205(1) Estimates Based on Radionuclide Ratios 206(2) Estimates Based on Redox-Sensitive Trace Elements 208(1) Estimates Based on Benthic and Planktonic Foraminifera 208(1) Estimates Based on Coccolithophorids and Diatoms 209(1) Proxies of Surface Nutrient Concentration 209(1) Proxies of Surface Nutrient Utilization Efficiency 210(1) Conclusions 211(6) References 212(5) Global Ocean Carbon Cycle Modeling 217(22) Introduction 217(1) Anthropogenic Carbon Uptake, Transient Tracers, and Physics 218(4) Global Biogeochemical Cycles 222(3) Ecosystem Dynamics 225(6) Other Topics 231(3) Mesoscale Physics 232(1) Climate Variability and Secular Change 232(1) Land, Coastal Ocean, and Sediment Interactions 233(1) Inverse Modeling and Data Assimilation 234(1) Summary 234(5) Acknowledgements 235(1) References 235(4) Temporal Studies of Biogeochemical Processes Determined from Ocean Time-Series Observations During the JGOFS Era 239(30) Introduction 239(1) The Oceanic Carbon Cycle and the Biological Carbon Pump 240(4) Global Inventory of JGOFS Time-Series Programs 244(6) Bermuda Atlantic Time-Series Study (BATS) 245(1) Dynamique des Flux Atmospherique en Mediterranee (DYFAMED) 246(1) European Station for Time-Series in the Ocean Canary Islands (ESTOC) 247(1) Hawaii Ocean Time-Series (HOT) 247(1) Kerguelen Point Fixe (KERFIX) 248(1) Kyodo Northwest Pacific Ocean Time-Series (KNOT) 248(1) Ocean Station Papa (OSP or Sta. P) 249(1) South East Asia Time-Series Station (SEATS) 249(1) Some Practical Lessons Learned from the JGOFS Time-Series Programs 250(1) Cross Ecosystem Habitat Comparisons: Nutrient, Chlorophyll and Production-Export Relationships 251(12) Case Study 1: Estimates of the Biological Carbon Pump at Ocean Times Series Sites 255(2) Case Study 2: A 'Bermuda Triangle' Carbon Mystery with Global Implications 257(1) Case Study 3: Decade-Scale, Climate-Driven Changes in the N2-Primed Prokaryote Carbon Pump 258(4) Case Study 4: OSP Ecosystem Dynamics and the Role of Iron 262(1) Beyond JGOFS: a Prospectus 263(6) Acknowledgements 264(1) References 265(4) JGOFS: a Retrospective View 269(10) The JGOFS Science Plan 269(1) The Process Studies 269(2) Iron Fertilisation Experiments 271(1) The Time Series Stations 271(1) The Global Survey 272(1) Remote Sensing 272(1) Benthic Studies 273(1) Continental Margins 273(1) Data Archiving 273(1) Models and Synthesis 274(1) Overall Conclusions 274(5) References 275(4) Index 279