Peoples and Cultures of the Middle East

Preface ix Introduction xii The Setting: Human Geography and Historical Background 1(29) Major Environmental Zones of the Central Middle East 1(1) Seas and Maritime Waterways 2(1) The Geological Foundations 3(3) Climatic Regimes and Water 6(4) Distribution of Population in the Central Middle East 10(3) Population and Settlement Patterns 13(3) Prehistoric Patterns of Adaptation 16(4) The Rise of Civilization 20(3) The Cultural Heritage of Early History 23(2) The Islamic Conquest and After 25(5) Islam: The Prophet and the Religion 30(28) The Scope of Islam 32(1) The Rise of Islam 33(2) Muhammad: The Man and the Prophecy 35(3) Umma: The Origins of the Islamic Polity 38(2) The Realm of Islam after Muhammad 40(3) Islam As Faith 43(1) Duties and Ritual in Islam 44(8) The Five Pillars of Islam 44(6) Food 50(1) Circumcision 51(1) Death 51(1) Sources of Islamic Law: Shari'a 52(2) Religious Leadership: The Ulama 54(4) Islam As Identity, Islam As Culture 58(32) Schisms in Islam: The Shi'a 59(2) Shi'a Beliefs: A Culture of Martyrdom and Dissent 61(2) The Shi'a Religious Leadership 63(5) Sects Within Shi'ism 68(1) Islamic Mysticism: The Sufi Way 69(3) Sufi Orders and Brotherhoods 72(1) Popular Beliefs: ``Saints,'' Sheikhs, and Baraka 72(6) Sufism and Sociopolitical Organization 78(6) The Wahabis of Saudi Arabia 78(1) The Shadhiliya Order of Egypt 79(2) The Nur or Fethullah Gulen Community Movement 81(3) Islam in Daily Life 84(2) Women and Religion 86(2) General Overview 88(2) Communal Identities and Ethnic Groups 90(30) Ethnicity: A Theoretical Framework 91(5) Race 96(1) Language 97(2) Religion 99(1) Non-Muslim Confessional Communities: Jews and Christians 100(12) Jewish Communities 102(3) Christians in the Middle East 105(1) The Maronites of Lebanon 106(4) The Armenians 110(2) Muslim-Derived Sectarian Communities 112(2) Regional Ethnic Groups 114(4) The Kurds and Kurdistan 115(3) General Overview 118(2) Pastoralism and Nomadic Society 120(23) The Ecological Basis for Pastoralism 121(2) Animals and Nomadism 123(3) Pastoralism and Market Relations 126(3) The State and Nomadic Pastoralists 129(1) The Yoruk of Southeast Turkey 130(4) The Basseri of Southwestern Iran 134(3) Al-Murra of Saudi Arabia 137(4) General Overview 141(2) Agriculture and the Changing Village 143(28) Land Use and Rural Settlements 144(4) The Traditional System of Land Tenure 148(4) Tenancy and Access to Land 152(1) Village Political Organization 153(3) Nontribal Villages 156(2) Domestic Organization 158(2) Rural Transformations 160(7) General Overview 167(4) Cities and Urban Life 171(30) The Nature of the City 173(2) The Middle Eastern City in Perspective 175(8) City Life Today 183(3) A Cairo Neighborhood: A Case Study 186(4) Istanbul Squatter Settlements 190(3) Planned Development: Amman 193(3) Reconstruction Beirut-Style: ``An Ancient City for the Future'' 196(2) General Overview 198(3) Kinship, Marriage, and the Family 201(25) Terms of Kinship 202(4) Patrilineal Descent and Patronymic Groups 206(1) The Family and the Household 207(3) Migration and the Household 210(2) Marriage 212(4) Marriage Arrangements and Wedding Ceremonies 216(5) Residence 221(1) Conjugal Versus Descent Ties 222(1) General Overview 223(3) Women and the Social Order 226(25) Socialization and Sex Roles 228(4) The Politics of Veiling 232(4) Honor, Shame, and Sexual Modesty 236(8) Legal Reform and Personal Status of Women 244(5) General Overview 249(2) Local Organization of Power: Leadership, Patronage, and Tribalism 251(27) The Environment of Political Behavior 252(2) The Politics of Sociability 254(1) Mediation and Patronage 255(1) Styles of Village Politics 256(2) Axes of Local Power 258(1) The Moral Basis of Politics 259(5) Tribes and Tribalism 264(2) Tribal Structure and the Segmentary Model 266(4) Authority, Leadership, and Tribal Society 270(1) Tribes and States 271(4) General Overview 275(3) Challenges and Dilemmas: The Middle East Today 278(27) Political Legitimacy, the Moral Order, and the State 279(8) Economic Transformations 287(5) Social and Cultural Dimensions of Change 292(8) Prospects for Civil Society 300(5) Glossary 305(6) References 311(14) Photo Credits 325(1) Index 326