Seed Wars : Controversies and Cases on Plant Genetic Resources and Intellectual Property

Acknowledgments xi Introduction xiii Malthus, Mendel, and Monsanto: Ownership of Plant Genetic Resources and Intellectual Property 3(6) Prelude to the ``Seed Wars'' 3(2) Who Should ``Own'' PGRs? 5(3) Particular Types of Inventive Human Agency 8(1) From Hunter-Gatherers to Industrial Farmers: A Brief History of Seed Cultivation 9(18) Colonialism, Germplasm Flow, and Selective Breeding: 16th-18th Centuries 10(2) Government Subsidy: 19th through Early 20th Centuries 12(4) Hybrid Vigor: 1900-1930s 16(4) The Shifting Emphasis between Public and Private Seed Research 20(2) The ``Green Revolution'' and Genetic Erosion 22(3) Summary 25(2) Grafting Plants into U.S. Patent Law: The Convergence of Technology and Law: 1930-2001 and Beyond 27(34) General Overview of U.S. Patent Law 27(3) The Plant Patent Act of 1930 (PPA) 30(4) The Plant Variety Protection Act of 1970 (PVPA) 34(4) Opposition to Expanded Intellectual Property Protection for Plants 38(3) Recent Skirmishes in the ``Seed Wars'' 41(17) 1980: Diamond v. Chakrabarty 41(1) 1985: Ex Parte Hibberd 42(2) 1995: Asgrow Seed Co. v. Winterboer 44(2) 2001: J.E.M. Ag Supply, Inc. et al., v. Pioneer Hi-Bred Int'l 46(3) 2004: Monsanto Canada, Inc. v. Percy Schmeiser 49(8) Other Cases 57(1) Summary 58(3) Overlapping International Legal Regimes for Plant Genetic Resources: From ``Common Heritage'' to ``Sovereign Property'' 61(38) The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants: 1961, 1972, 1978, and 1991 63(3) The CGIAR System 66(3) The 1983 International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources (IUPGR) 69(5) The Keystone Dialogues and ``Farmers' Rights'' 74(3) The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the 1994 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS) 77(8) The 2001 International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources (ITPGR) 85(5) Comparison and Comments: Two Decades of International Treaties and Agreements 90(6) Summary 96(3) Intellectual Property and Beyond? 99(24) Governing the (Limited) Commons? 99(4) Alternate (Intellectual) Property Regimes 103(6) ``Farmers' Rights,'' the Open Source Software Movement and Open Access to PGRs 109(14) Open Source Software Principles 109(2) An Intellectual Property Anticommons for PGRs and Related Technology? 111(3) Applicability of the Open Source Model to PGRs 114(3) Plusses and Minuses of an Open Source PGR Model 117(5) Institutional Challenges in Applying an Open Source Model to PGRs 122(1) Conclusion 123(6) Appendix 129(110) I. International Agreements 129(14) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) 129(1) Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 129(4) International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGR) 133(5) Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Fair and Equitable Sharing of the Benefits Arising out of their Utilization 138(5) II. National Legislation 143(11) United States 143(1) Plant Variety Protection Act 143(6) Canada 149(1) Plant Breeders' Rights Act 149(5) III. Cases 154(85) United States 154(1) Sidney A. Diamond, Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks, Petitioner, v. Ananda M. Chakrabarty et al. 154(8) Ex parte Kenneth A. Hibberd, Paul C. Anderson and Melanie Barker 162(5) Asgrow seed Company, Petitioner v. Denny Winterboer and Becky Winterboer, dba Deebees 167(7) J.E.M. AG Supply, INC., et al., Petitioners, v. Pioneer Hi-bred International, INC. 174(13) Canada 187(1) Percy Schmeiser and Schmeiser Enterprises Ltd., Appellants, v. Monsanto Canada Inc. and Monsanto Company, Respondents and Attorney General of Ontario, Canadian Canola Growers Association (CCGA), Ag-West Biotech Inc., BIOTECanada, Canadian Seed Trade Association, Council of Canadians, Action Group on Erosion, Technology and Concentration, Sierra Club of Canada, National Farmers Union, Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology, and International Centre for Technology Assessment, Interveners 187(27) Harvard College v. Canada (Commissioner of Patents) 214(25) Bibliography 239(20) Index 259