Spacecraft Thermal Control Handbook, Volume I : Fundamental Technologies

Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii Contributing Authors xv Spacecraft Systems Overview 1(20) Introduction 1(1) Spacecraft Configurations 1(6) Earth Orbits 7(4) Interplanetary Orbits 11(4) Missions 15(6) Spacecraft Thermal Environments 21(50) Environments of Earth Orbit 21(15) Standard Earth Orbit 36(12) Environments of Interplanetary Missions 48(12) Aerobraking Environments 60(3) Launch and Ascent Environments 63(4) References 67(4) Thermal Design Examples 71(68) Introduction 71(1) Spin-Stabilized Satellites 71(1) Three-Axis-Stabilized Satellites 72(1) Propulsion Systems 73(4) Batteries 77(2) Antennas 79(2) Sun, Earth, and Star Sensors 81(3) Cooled Devices 84(2) Solar Arrays 86(1) The Huygens Probe 87(8) System Overview: The Hubble Space Telescope 95(44) Thermal Surface Finishes 139(22) Introduction 139(1) Common Thermal Surface Finishes 139(4) Causes of Thermal Surface Degradation 143(9) Degradation Rates for Common Thermal Finishes 152(3) LDEF Results 155(3) Electrical Grounding 158(1) References 159(2) Insulation 161(46) Introduction 161(1) Blanket Performance 162(7) Blanket Design Requirements 169(1) Materials 169(13) Provisions for Venting 182(1) Attachment 183(3) Provisions for Electrical Grounding 186(1) Fabrication 187(6) Bakeout and Cleaning 193(1) High-Temperature Blankets 193(1) Suggestions 194(4) Insulation for In-Atmosphere Applications 198(7) References 205(2) Radiators 207(16) Introduction 207(2) Passive Structure Radiators 209(1) Structural Panels with Heat Pipes 209(1) Body-Mounted Radiators 209(2) Deployable Radiators 211(4) Radiator Freezing 215(2) Radiator Effectiveness 217(3) Experimental Radiators 220(2) References 222(1) Heaters 223(24) Introduction 223(1) Heater Types 223(1) Control 224(3) Failure Modes of Mechanical Thermostats 227(1) Circuits 228(3) Computer-Controlled Heater System Example 231(10) Radioisotope Heater Units 241(6) Mountings and Interfaces 247(84) Introduction 247(1) Unit Conduction Cooling 247(13) Bolted-Joint Conductance without Interface Filler 260(15) Bolted-Joint Conductance with Interface Filler 275(9) Complex Configurations and Special Topics 284(36) Nomenclature 320(3) References 323(8) Louvers 331(22) Introduction 331(1) Vane Louvers 332(3) Analysis of Vane Louvers 335(11) Designing Louvers for Operation in Sunlight 346(3) Pinwheel Louvers 349(3) References 352(1) Heat Switches 353(20) Introduction 353(1) Heat-Switch Applications 354(1) Heat-Switch Integration 355(2) Paraffin Heat Switches 357(9) Cryogenic Heat Switches 366(4) References 370(3) Phase-Change Materials 373(32) Phase-Change-Material Applications 373(4) Phase-Change Materials 377(3) When To Use a PCM 380(3) PCM Design Details 383(19) The PCM Design Process 402(1) References 402(3) Pumped Fluid Loops 405(68) Introduction 405(2) Fluid-Flow Concepts and Basic Equations 407(8) Forced Convection in Pipes and Tubes 415(3) System Hardware 418(24) Analysis of a Fluid Loop 442(1) Computer Software for System Analysis 443(1) PFL Application 444(24) References 468(5) Thermoelectric Coolers 473(16) Introduction 473(1) Background 473(2) Characteristics 475(1) Optimizations 476(2) Heat Load Testing 478(1) Interfaces 478(1) XRT Focal-Plane TEC Mounting 479(1) Design Development 480(1) Power Supply 481(1) Application Example 481(6) References 487(2) Heat Pipes 489(34) Overview 489(1) Types of Heat Pipe 490(6) Analysis 496(4) Testing 500(1) Heat-Pipe Applications and Performance 501(1) Heat-Pipe References 502(1) LHPs and CPLs 502(16) Selecting a Design 518(3) References 521(2) Thermal Design Analysis 523(76) Introduction 523(1) Spacecraft Project Phases 523(11) Thermal Design/Analysis Process Overview 534(3) Fundamentals of Thermal Modeling 537(15) Thermal Design Analysis Example: POAM 552(20) Margins 572(3) TMM Computer Codes 575(17) Radiation Analysis Codes 592(5) References 597(2) Thermal Contact Resistance 599(40) Introduction 599(1) Contact Heat-Transfer Background 600(2) Parameters Influencing Thermal Joint Resistance 602(1) Thermal Joint Resistance Models 603(20) The Effect of Oxidation on Thermal Contact Resistance 623(3) The Effect of Interstitial Materials on Thermal Contact Resistance 626(10) References 636(3) Precision Temperature Control 639(28) Introduction 639(1) The Space Interferometry Mission 640(15) The Hydrogen Maser Clock 655(11) Summary 666(1) References 666(1) Space Shuttle Integration 667(42) Introduction 667(2) Engineering-Compatibility Assessment 669(6) Safety Assessment 675(1) The Cargo Integration Review 676(1) Orbiter Payload-Bay Thermal Environment 677(20) Middeck Payload Accommodations 697(3) Ferry-Flight Accommodations 700(1) Optional Services 701(8) Thermal Testing 709(50) Introduction 709(1) Definitions 710(5) Design Environments 715(10) Development Thermal Testing 725(2) Unit Thermal Testing 727(15) Subsystem and Payload Thermal Testing 742(1) System Thermal Testing 742(14) Launch Site Thermal Testing 756(1) References 757(2) Technology Projections 759(32) Introduction 759(1) Technology Drivers 760(1) Programmatic Concerns 761(1) Future Technologies and Innovations 761(25) Summary 786(1) References 787(4) Appendix A Surface Optical Property Data 791(12) Appendix B Material Thermal Properties 803(16) Appendix C Thermally Conductive Filler Materials and Suppliers 819(12) Index 831