The Threat of Force in International Law

Foreword xi Preface xiii List of abbreviations xvii Birth and infancy of a Charter rule: the open framework 1(36) Article 2(4)'s blind spot 1(6) Traced attempts to regulate threats before 1919 7(4) The League and interwar system 11(8) The Charter's original conception of restraint 19(6) The Nuremberg and Tokyo trials 25(3) Post-Charter efforts dealing with the threat of force: defining aggression 28(6) The drafter's broad intent 34(3) The menu of choice: a guide to interpretation 37(28) From intent to content 37(1) Proposition that threat and force are coupled 38(5) Proposition that threat and force are uncoupled 43(9) Proposition that article 2(4) joins in with article 2(3) 52(3) Proposition that article 2(4) requires imminence 55(2) Proposition that article 2(4) requires coercion 57(4) Conclusions 61(4) Precedents of the International Court of Justice 65(27) Scarcity of case law 65(3) UK-Albania (Corfu Channel, 1949) 68(6) USA-Nicaragua (paramilitary activities, 1986) 74(5) Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion (1996) 79(11) Conclusions 90(2) Deciphering post-Charter practice: means and limits 92(35) Expanding the search 92(2) Legally relevant state practice 94(10) The relationship between state practice and treaty 104(5) The collection of state practice 109(7) The sources of analysis 116(3) The appraisal of state practice 119(6) Chapter summary 125(2) Open threats to extract concessions 127(45) A line drawn into the sand 127(2) UK-Israel (Sinai incursion, 1948) 129(2) USA-DPRK, PRC-USA (38th parallel, 1950) 131(4) PRC-India (Sino-Indian border, 1965) 135(2) Morocco-Spain, Algeria (Moroccan march, 1975) 137(5) Uganda-Kenya (Idi Amin, 1976) 142(4) Cyprus-Turkey (missile crisis, 1997--1998) 146(4) NATO-Yugoslavia (Rambouillet, 1999) 150(7) USA, UK-Iraq (regime change, 2002-2003) 157(11) Conclusions 168(4) Demonstrations of force 172(46) Deeds more than words 172(2) USSR-Turkey (Turkish Straits, 1946) 174(4) India-Portugal (Goa, 1961) 178(6) USSR-Czechoslovakia (Prague Spring, 1968) 184(5) Colombia-Nicaragua (San Andres Islands, 1979--1980) 189(3) USA-Libya (Gulf of Sidra, 1981) 192(4) USA-Nicaragua (MiG-21s, 1984) 196(5) USA-Libya (Rabta controversy, 1989) 201(5) Iraq-Kuwait (sanctions defiance, 1994) 206(7) Conclusions 213(5) Countervailing threats or: threats in self-defence 218(34) Two narratives 218(2) USA-PRC (Seventh Fleet, 1950) 220(5) Pakistan-India (Kashmir, 1951) 225(2) Iraq-Iran (Shatt-al-Arab, 1969--1975) 227(5) Greece-Turkey (continental shelf, 1976) 232(3) Syria-Jordan (Arab League summit, 1980) 235(3) PRC-Vietnam (Spratly Islands, 1988) 238(2) PRC-Taiwan (Lee Teng-hui, 1995--1996) 240(5) ROK-DPRK (submarine incident, 1996) 245(4) Conclusions 249(3) Findings and conclusions 252(23) General stock-taking 252(6) Criteria for violation 258(7) Criteria for justification 265(5) Changes in the law 270(3) The regulation in a nutshell 273(2) Epilogue: the law in operation 275(16) Reappraising article 2(4)'s blind spot 275(3) Robert Ellickson's Shasta County 278(2) Fostering cooperation 280(9) Lessons for the regime of force 289(2) Annex 291(22) Threats of force 1945--2003 291(20) Protracted conflicts 1918--2003 311(2) Bibliography 313(19) Index 332