Working Toward Sustainability

Preface xiii
<p>Acknowledgments xv</p>
<p>Introduction xvii</p>
<p>MAKING CONNECTIONS xviii</p>
<p>SHIFTING TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY xix</p>
<p>THE STRUCTURE OF THIS BOOK xx</p>
<p>Chapter 1</p>
<p>A Context for Sustainability 1</p>
<p>THE RATIONALE FOR SUSTAINABILITY 1</p>
<p>Sustainability Interlude 1</p>
<p>A Response to a Crisis 2</p>
<p>CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES 5</p>
<p>Population and Consumption 6</p>
<p>Climate Change 6</p>
<p>Nonrenewable Resource Depletion 8</p>
<p>Loss of Biodiversity 9</p>
<p>Overfishing 10</p>
<p>Eutrophication 12</p>
<p>Desertification and Acidification 13</p>
<p>Poverty 14</p>
<p>Ecosystem Services and Quality of Life 14</p>
<p>THE ETHICAL CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABILITY 15</p>
<p>THE THREE–LEG MODEL OF SUSTAINABILITY 15</p>
<p>CONCLUSION 17</p>
<p>Chapter 2</p>
<p>The Technology Challenge 21</p>
<p>OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGY 21</p>
<p>Defining Technology 22</p>
<p>A Brief History of Technology 22</p>
<p>THE TECHNOLOGY PARADOX 25</p>
<p>Technological Optimism versus Technological Pessimism 25</p>
<p>Developing a More Nuanced View of the Impacts of Technology 27</p>
<p>CONSEQUENCES OF TECHNOLOGY 28</p>
<p>Predicting Consequences of Technology 29</p>
<p>Reducing the Uncertainty of Technology 31</p>
<p>Technology Risk Assessment, Acceptance, and Management 32</p>
<p>ALTERNATIVE, APPROPRIATE, AND SUSTAINABLE TECHNOLOGY 34</p>
<p>THE ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF TECHNOLOGY 36</p>
<p>SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 37</p>
<p>Chapter 3</p>
<p>Introduction to Ethical Concepts 41</p>
<p>RELIGIOUS ETHICS 42</p>
<p>Common Ideals 42</p>
<p>Views of Human Nature 45</p>
<p>SECULAR AND PHILOSOPHICAL ETHICAL TRADITIONS 46</p>
<p>Justice 47</p>
<p>Deontological Ethics 47</p>
<p>Rights 48</p>
<p>Consequentialist Ethics 51</p>
<p>Objectivism and Ethical Relativism 52</p>
<p>Objectivism and Relativism in Sustainability 55</p>
<p>ETHICS AS A TOOL FOR MAKING DECISIONS 55</p>
<p>Framing Ethical Problems 56</p>
<p>Conflicting Values 56</p>
<p>THE THREE LEGS OF SUSTAINABILITY 58</p>
<p>Social Ethics 59</p>
<p>Environmental Ethics 60</p>
<p>Economic Ethics 61</p>
<p>Integrating the Three Legs 63</p>
<p>CONCLUSION 64</p>
<p>Chapter 4</p>
<p>Social Dimensions of Sustainability Ethics 67</p>
<p>JUSTICE, FAIRNESS, AND RECIPROCITY 67</p>
<p>The Golden Rule 68</p>
<p>Ethics of Care 71</p>
<p>DISTRIBUTIONAL PRINCIPLES 72</p>
<p>Distribution in a Just Society 73</p>
<p>Distributing Disadvantages 74</p>
<p>EXPLORING INTERDEPENDENCE 75</p>
<p>Thinking Globally, Acting Locally 76</p>
<p>Life on Spaceship Earth 78</p>
<p>Environmental Justice 80</p>
<p>OBLIGATIONS TO FUTURE GENERATIONS 81</p>
<p>Intergenerational Justice 82</p>
<p>A Look Back at Looking Forward 84</p>
<p>Future Quality of Life 85</p>
<p>Beyond Seven Generations 87</p>
<p>CONCLUSION 90</p>
<p>Chapter 5</p>
<p>Environmental Dimensions of Sustainability Ethics 95</p>
<p>THE EMERGENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS 95</p>
<p>The Birth of Modern Environmental Ethics 96</p>
<p>Environmentalism Becomes Mainstream 98</p>
<p>Undertones of the Sacred 99</p>
<p>RELIGION AND ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS 99</p>
<p>Religion and Nature 99</p>
<p>Greening Religion 101</p>
<p>ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES IN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS 103</p>
<p>Development of Ecology 103</p>
<p>CARICATURES OF NATURE 104</p>
<p>A Closer World 105</p>
<p>CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES IN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS 107</p>
<p>Getting the Scale of Ethics Right 108</p>
<p>Deep Ecology, Ecofeminism, and Social Ecology 109</p>
<p>Pluralistic Approaches 111</p>
<p>Bioregionalism 112</p>
<p>The New Agrarian Movement 113</p>
<p>ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS AND NONHUMAN ANIMALS 114</p>
<p>Making a Case for the Individual 114</p>
<p>Mixed Communities 115</p>
<p>ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS AND THE ETHICS OF SUSTAINABILITY 116</p>
<p>Identifying Values 117</p>
<p>Emphasizing Human Priorities 117</p>
<p>CONCLUSION 118</p>
<p>Chapter 6</p>
<p>Economic Dimensions of Sustainability Ethics 123</p>
<p>FROM CLASSICAL ECONOMICS TO ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS 124</p>
<p>The Advent of Modern Economics 124</p>
<p>Ecological Economics and the Classical Economists 125</p>
<p>Neoclassical Economics 128</p>
<p>Criticisms of Neoclassical Economics 130</p>
<p>Physical Limitations 131</p>
<p>Influences of Ecology 132</p>
<p>THE ECOLOGICAL ECONOMIC MODEL 134</p>
<p>Natural Capital and Ecological Services 135</p>
<p>Discounting the Future 136</p>
<p>The Economic Value of Natural Systems 137</p>
<p>Feedback between Ecological and Economic Systems 139</p>
<p>TOOLS OF ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS 144</p>
<p>The Polluter Pays Principle 144</p>
<p>Extended Producer Responsibility 145</p>
<p>Beneficiary Pays Principle 146</p>
<p>Full Cost Accounting, Full Cost Pricing, and Life–Cycle Costing 148</p>
<p>CONCLUSION 150</p>
<p>Chapter 7</p>
<p>Integrating the Three Legs of Sustainability 155</p>
<p>THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE 156</p>
<p>A Legal Context 157</p>
<p>Precaution in Practice 159</p>
<p>Precaution as Risk Management 160</p>
<p>Cost–Benefit Analysis 161</p>
<p>Including Stakeholders 162</p>
<p>Including Science 164</p>
<p>Compensation for Risks 165</p>
<p>The March of Progress 167</p>
<p>IRRECONCILABLE DIFFERENCES 168</p>
<p>Lifeboat Ethics 168</p>
<p>Tragedy of the Commons 169</p>
<p>Hardin s Challenge 170</p>
<p>POVERTY REDUCTION VERSUS ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION 170</p>
<p>Linking Social and Environmental Goals 171</p>
<p>Finding Synergistic Solutions 172</p>
<p>The Role of Technology 174</p>
<p>MANAGING THE GLOBAL COMMONS 175</p>
<p>The Need for a Central Authority 176</p>
<p>Moving beyond the Tragedy of the Commons 177</p>
<p>International Multilateral Agreements 179</p>
<p>Non–Governmental Organizations 180</p>
<p>The Role of Government 181</p>
<p>TRANSCENDING THE THREE–LEGGED STOOL MODEL 182</p>
<p>Integrating the Three Legs 182</p>
<p>Complex Adaptive Systems 183</p>
<p>Integrating Behavior at Different Scales 184</p>
<p>Resilience in Social–Ecological Systems 187</p>
<p>Resilience and the Precautionary Principle 188</p>
<p>Resilience and Technology 189</p>
<p>Conflicting Values 191</p>
<p>THE DISTRIBUTION OF POWER IN DECISION MAKING 192</p>
<p>The Principle of Transparency 193</p>
<p>Transparency in Industry 194</p>
<p>Transparency and Technology 196</p>
<p>The Value of Autonomy 197</p>
<p>CONCLUSION 199</p>
<p>Chapter 8</p>
<p>Improving Our Thinking about Sustainability 209</p>
<p>OBSTACLES TO MAKING GOOD DECISIONS 210</p>
<p>Rational Decision Making 210</p>
<p>Limits of Rationality 212</p>
<p>Cognitive Heuristics 214</p>
<p>Discounting the Future 217</p>
<p>Complexity 219</p>
<p>How Barriers to Rationality Affect Decisions 220</p>
<p>STRATEGIES FOR ADDRESSING LIMITS TO RATIONALITY 224</p>
<p>Becoming Environmentally Informed 224</p>
<p>Becoming Socially and Economically Informed 226</p>
<p>Systems Thinking 227</p>
<p>CONCLUSION 235</p>
<p>Chapter 9</p>
<p>The Process of Changing Behavior 239</p>
<p>THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR 239</p>
<p>Attitudes 240</p>
<p>Subjective Norms 240</p>
<p>Perceived Control 241</p>
<p>Understanding Planned Behavior 242</p>
<p>OBSTACLES TO SUSTAINABLE BEHAVIOR 243</p>
<p>Political Obstacles to Sustainable Behavior 244</p>
<p>Lack of Social Capital 244</p>
<p>Accepting Unsustainable Outcomes 245</p>
<p>Individualization 246</p>
<p>Distancing 248</p>
<p>HOW CHANGE HAPPENS 251</p>
<p>The Five Phases of Individual Change 251</p>
<p>Diffusion of Innovation 253</p>
<p>Applying Diffusion of Innovation 254</p>
<p>STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTING CHANGE 257</p>
<p>Small Wins 257</p>
<p>Reasonable Person Model 258</p>
<p>Moving People toward Change 261</p>
<p>CONCLUSION 262</p>
<p>Chapter 10</p>
<p>Creating Change with Groups 267</p>
<p>ADVANTAGES OF GROUP DECISION MAKING 267</p>
<p>Additional Insights 268</p>
<p>New Discoveries 270</p>
<p>Increased Buy–In 271</p>
<p>TYPES OF COLLABORATIVE PROCESSES 272</p>
<p>MAKING THE MULTI–STAKEHOLDER PROCESS WORK 273</p>
<p>Social Learning 273</p>
<p>Building Shared Understanding 275</p>
<p>Trust 281</p>
<p>Iterative Approach 284</p>
<p>LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS 287</p>
<p>Developing the Ideal of a Learning Organization 288</p>
<p>Creating Change in a Learning Organization 289</p>
<p>CONCLUSION 290</p>
<p>Chapter 11</p>
<p>Applying an Ethic of Sustainability 295</p>
<p>MAKING ETHICAL DECISIONS FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE: AN OVERVIEW 295</p>
<p>Social Sustainability 296</p>
<p>Ecological Sustainability 296</p>
<p>Economic Sustainability 297</p>
<p>Integrating the Dimensions of Sustainability 298</p>
<p>CONTEMPORARY SUSTAINABILITY–BASED FRAMEWORKS 298</p>
<p>The Natural Step 299</p>
<p>The Hannover Principles 300</p>
<p>Corporate Social Responsibility 300</p>
<p>PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER 303</p>
<p>Sustainability Frameworks and Ethics 303</p>
<p>Picturing the Three–Legged Stool Model 304</p>
<p>A FINAL CRITIQUE 313</p>
<p>Index 319</p>