Behavior and the Natural Environment

1 The Concept Of Nature: A Psychologist’s View.- Some Definitional Problems.- Boundary-Line Problems.- Toward a Perceptually Based Ecology of Natural Environments.- The Simulation of the Natural Realm.- Alternative Views of Nature in Psychological Terms.- Nature as a Realm of Continuous Change and Growth.- Nature as a Refuge.- Nature as a Symbol.- Conclusion: Nature as a “Natural” Category.- The Developmental Origins of the Natural/Artificial Differentiation.- A Program of Research on the Perceptual, Cognitive, and Affective Components of the Nature Concept.- A Final Comment.- References.- 2 Methodological Issues in the Assessment Of Landscape Quality.- Landscape Quality.- Landscape-Assessment Models.- Ecological Model.- Example.- Evaluation.- Formal Aesthetic Model.- Example.- Evaluation.- Psychophysical Model.- Example.- Evaluation.- Psychological Model.- Example.- Evaluation.- Phenomenological Model.- Example.- Evaluation.- Conclusion.- References.- 3 Aesthetic and Affective Response to Natural Environment.- Defining Affective and Aesthetic Response.- Toward a Theory of Affective Response to Natural Environment.- Generating Affects: Feelings Precede Thoughts.- A Psychoevolutionary Framework.- Affects and Behavior in Natural Environments.- Visual Properties Influencing Aesthetic Preference and Interest.- Complexity.- Structural Properties.- Depth.- Ground Surface Texture.- Threat/Tension.- Deflected Vistas.- Water.- Summary of Visual Properties Influencing Preference.- Extent of Agreement among Observers for Preference.- Cultural Influences on Aesthetic Preference.- Aesthetic Response to Natural versus Built Environments.- Man-Made Features in Natural Settings.- Other Affective-Arousal Responses to Natural versus Urban Visual Environment.- Visual Landscapes and Psychophysiological Restoration: A Tentative Perspective.- Summary and Directions for Research.- References.- 4 The Role of Nature in the Urban Context.- Growing Awareness of Urban Nature.- Indirect Evidence.- Preference for Urban Nature: Content and Process.- The Urban Environment: Perceptual Categories.- Content and Process as Predictors.- The View from Home.- Kinds of Nature.- Does the View Matter?.- Satisfaction from Urban Nature.- Satisfaction without Active Use.- People-Plant Relationship.- Gardening Satisfactions.- Organic versus Chemical Fertilizers.- Urban Nature and Quality of Life.- Human Needs and the Natural Environment.- Participation.- Search and Research.- References.- 5 Psychological Benefits of a Wilderness Experience.- Research on Wilderness Values.- Research on the Impacts of Wilderness Experiences.- Remaining Questions.- A Closer Look at the Wilderness Experience: The Outdoor Challenge Research Program.- Program Description and Methodology.- Questionnaire Results: Changing Reactions to Wilderness.- Analysis of Wilderness Journals: Exploring Processes, Searching for Mechanisms.- Time Course of the Experience.- Psychological Dimensions of the Wilderness Experience.- Returning to Civilization.- Areas of Theoretical Interest.- Being Away.- Fascination.- “Other Worlds” and the Concept of Coherence.- Action and Compatibility.- The Emergence of Psychological Benefits.- The Progression of Response to Wilderness.- The Contents of Contemplation.- Concluding Comments.- A Perspective on Restorative Environments.- Does the Natural Environment Make a Difference?.- Wilderness and Human Nature.- References.- 6 Recreational Needs and Behavior in Natural Settings.- Recreation, Nature, and Expected Outcomes.- The Evolution of Inquiry.- The Recreationist as a Purposive Actor.- The Actor Needs More Study.- Conclusion.- References.- 7 Affective, Cognitive, and Evaluative Perceptions of Animals.- Basic Attitudes toward Animals.- The Special Case of Hunting.- Knowledge of Animals.- Attitudes toward Animal-Related Issues and Problems.- Symbolic Perceptions of Animals.- Policy and Management Implications.- References.- 8 Social and Behavioral Aspects of the Carrying Capacity of Natural Environments.- The Multidimensioned Environment-User Relationship.- Carrying Capacity Exceeded: Two Examples.- Easter Island.- St. Matthew Island.- Differences and Similarities.- Penchant for Discounting Ecological Omens.- Conceptual Development.- Highlights of the Idea’s Emergence.- Components of Carrying Capacity.- Further Basic Considerations.- Recreational Carrying Capacity.- Anthropologists and Carrying Capacity.- Future Directions of Research.- Homo colossus: The Per Capita Impact Dimension.- Trade and Air-Conditioning: The Deficiency Dimension.- Diachronic Competition: The Time Dimension.- Avoidance of Overstocking: The Degradation Dimension.- References.- 9 Contributions of Behavioral Scientists to Recreation Resource Management.- Skills Needed by Recreation Policymakers and Managers.- An Applied Perspective.- Policy and Management Issues Related to Behavioral Research.- Producing and Measuring Use of Recreation Opportunities.- Producing and Measuring Recreation Experiences.- Producing and Measuring Recreation Benefits.- Reducing and Measuring Adverse Impacts.- References.