Vertebrate Myogenesis

Development of Visceral Smooth Muscles.- 1 Early Appearance of Smooth Muscles.- 2 Timing of Smooth Muscle Development.- 3 Morphology of Developing Smooth Muscles.- 4 Cytological Differentiation.- 5 Chemical Differentiation.- 6 Growth of Visceral Smooth Muscles.- 7 Cell Division and Increase in Cell Number.- 8 Extracellular Materials and Vascularization.- 9 Origin of Smooth Muscle Precursors.- 10 Influence of Endothelium, Epithelium, Connective Tissue and Nerves on Smooth Muscle Development.- 10.1 Role of Endothelium and Epithelium.- 10.2 Role of Mesenchymal Cells and the Extracellular Matrix.- 10.3 Role of Nerves.- 11 Development of Mechanical Activity.- 12 Related Processes of Development and Growth.- 13 Synopsis.- References.- Mammalian Smooth Muscle Differentiation: Origins, Markers and Transcriptional Control.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Smooth Muscle Cell Ontogeny.- 2.1 Evolutionary Concepts.- 2.2 Embryological Origins of SMC.- 2.3 Models for Studying SMC Differentiation.- 3 Molecular Definitions of Smooth Muscle Cell Lineages.- 3.1 SMC-Restricted Markers.- 3.2 SMC-Restricted Promoter Activity.- 4 Future Perspectives.- References.- The Genetics of Murine Skeletal Muscle Biogenesis.- 1 Introduction.- 2 The Restriction of Cell Fate and Views on Cell Determination.- 3 The Somite Is a Source of Multiple Cell Types.- 4 The Acquisition of Cell Fate in the Somite: Myf5 and Myod Confer Skeletal Muscle Identity.- 5 Subpopulations of Stem Cells Migrate from the Somite to the Limb.- 6 Extrinsic Factors Direct Cell Identity in the Somite.- 7 Manipulations of the Myf5 Locus and Distal Rib Phenotypes: the Complexities of Gene Regulation.- 8 Conclusions.- References.- Somite Patterning: a Few More Pieces of the Puzzle.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Segmental Plate Morphology.- 3 Somite Differentiation.- 3.1 Muscle Formation.- 3.1.1 Epaxial and Hypaxial Muscle Derivatives.- 3.1.2 A Distinct Embryonic Origin for Epaxial and Hypaxial Muscles?.- 3.1.3 Epaxial Muscle Formation.- 3.1.4 Hypaxial Muscle Formation.- 3.1.5 A Second Wave of Proliferative Muscle Progenitors.- 3.2 Dermis Formation.- 4 Tissue and Molecular Regulation of Somite Differentiation.- 4.1 The Notochord and Floor Plate Exert a Ventralizing Activity on the Somite: a Role for Sonic Hedgehog?.- 4.2 Dorsalizing Activity of Wnt Molecules in the Dorsal Ectoderm and Neural Tube.- 4.3 Tissue and Molecular Regulation of Myogenesis: an Instructive or Permissive Process?.- 5 Conclusion.- References.- Transcription Factors in Skeletal Myogenesis of Vertebrates.- 1 Myogenesis.- 2 Determination and Differentiation of Muscle Precursor Cells.- 2.1 MRFs.- 2.1.1 Myf5.- 2.1.2 MyoD.- 2.1.3 Myogenin.- 2.1.4 MRF4.- 2.2 MEF2 Transcription Factors.- 3 Hypaxial Muscle Development.- 3.1 Pax3.- 3.2 Lbx1.- 3.3 Mox2.- 4 Regeneration of Skeletal Muscle.- 4.1 MRFs.- 4.2 Pax?.- 4.3 MNF.- 5 Perspectives.- References.- Hypaxial Muscle Development.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Developmental Anatomy of Trunk Skeletal Muscles in Amniotes.- 3 Markers for Hypaxial Muscle Precursors.- 4 Specification of Hypaxial Muscle Precursors.- 4.1 Cues from the Lateral Mesoderm.- 4.2 Cues from the Surface Ectoderm.- 4.3 Master Regulator Pax3.- 5 Specification of Migratory Muscle Precursors.- 5.1 Somitic Competence.- 5.2 Localized Lateral Signals for the Recruitment of Limb Muscle Precursors.- 5.3 The Role of Scatter Factor/Hepatocyte Growth Factor and cMet in the Delamination of Migratory Muscle Precursors.- 5.4 The Role of Lbx1 in Target Recognition of Limb Muscle Precursors.- 6 Building a Regulatory Network for Hypaxial Muscle Development.- References.- Inhibition of Skeletal Muscle Development: Less Differentiation Gives More Muscle.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Secreted Signalling Molecules.- 2.1 Fibroblast Growth Factor Family.- 2.2 Transforming Growth Factor ? Superfamily.- 3 Extracellular Matrix.- 4 Transcription Factors.- 4.1 Notch.- 4.2 Twist.- 4.3 Id.- 4.4 Msxl.- 5 Summary.- References.- Control of Muscle Size During Embryonic, Fetal, and Adult Life.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Somite Patterning and Specification of Myogenic Cells.- 3 Allocation of Cells to the Dorsal Somite Compartment.- 4 Migration of Muscle Precursor Cells.- 5 Balance Between Proliferation and Differentiation.- 6 Muscle Growth in the Embryonic, Fetal, and Neonatal Periods of Development.- 7 Embryonic and Fetal Muscle Fibers.- 8 Embryonic, Fetal, and Adult Myoblasts.- 9 Number of Embryonic and Fetal Myoblasts and Fiber Formation.- 10 Innervation and Muscle Fiber Number and Size.- 11 Muscle Hypertrophy and Regeneration.- 12 Programmed Cell Death During Muscle Development.- 13 Recruitment of Myogenic Cells from Adult Pluripotent Stem Cells.- References.- Cadherins in Skeletal Muscle Development.- 1 Cadherins.- 1.1 Cadherin Structure and Interactions.- 1.2 Cadherins and Catenins.- 2 Cadherins in Myogenesis.- 2.1 M-Cadherin.- 2.2 N-Cadherin.- 2.3 R-Cadherin.- 3 Summary and Outlook.- References.- Slow Myosins in Muscle Development.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Myosin Heavy Chain Genes.- 3 Slow Myosin Heavy Chain Genes in Avian Skeletal Muscle.- 4 Slow Myosin Heavy Chain Genes in Mammalian Skeletal Muscle.- 5 Slow MyHC Genes in Fish Skeletal Muscle.- 6 Hedgehog Family of Signaling Molecules and Slow Myosin Expression in Skeletal Muscle Development.- 7 Innervation and Calcineurin Responsive Pathways and the Control of Slow MyHC Expression in Skeletal Muscle.- 8 Slow MyHC Expression in the Developing Heart.- 9 Summary.- References.- Molecular Characterization of Early Cardiac Development.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Molecular Control of Heart Field and Tubular Heart Formation.- 2.1 Conserved Regulatory Circuits Control Heart Field Formation in Insects and Vertebrates.- 2.1.1 Heart Field Formation in Vertebrates.- 2.1.2 Heart Formation in Insects.- 2.1.3 Nkx Homeobox Genes.- 2.1.4 GATA Genes.- 2.2 Hypoblast and Anterior Endoderm Are Involved in Myocardial Specification and Differentiation.- 2.3 Identification of Signalling Molecules Involved in Cardiac Specification and Differentiation.- 2.3.1 The Role of BMP2 in Heart Induction.- 2.4 Other Cardiogenic Signals.- 2.4.1 Wnt Signals Interfere with Heart Formation in Vertebrates.- 2.4.2 FGF Cooperates with BMP2.- 2.4.3 Cerberus.- 2.4.4 Cripto.- 2.5 Heart Tube Formation.- 3 Molecular Control of Cardiac Chamber Formation.- 3.1 Transcriptional Regulators of Chamber Formation.- 3.2 Cell-Cell Interaction in Chamber Formation.- 3.3 Popeye Genes — a Novel Family of Muscle-Restricted Genes.- References.