Principles of Geodynamics

1. Physiographic and Geological Data Regarding the Earth.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Geological Evolution of the Earth.- 1.2.1 The Basic Rock Types.- 1.2.2 The Scales of Geological Phenomena.- 1.2.3 Paleoclimatic Data.- 1.3 Geography of Continents and Oceans.- 1.3.1 Global Arrangement.- 1.3.2 The Hypsometric Curve.- 1.3.3 A Comparison of Continents and Oceans.- 1.4 Physiography of Continental Areas.- 1.4.1 General Features.- 1.4.2 Mountain Ranges.- 1.4.3 The Margins of Continents.- 1.5 Physiography of Oceanic Areas.- 1.5.1 General Remarks.- 1.5.2 Abyssal Plains.- 1.5.3 Mid-Ocean Ridges.- 1.5.4 Smaller Features in Basins.- 1.6 Physiography of Tectonic Features.- 1.6.1 General Remarks.- 1.6.2 Faults.- 1.6.3 Joints.- 1.6.4 Valleys in Plan.- 1.6.5 Folds.- 1.6.6 Petrofabrics.- 1.7 Physiography of Some Local Features.- 1.7.1 Introduction.- 1.7.2 Boudinage.- 1.7.3 Diapirs.- 1.7.4 Volcanoes.- 1.7.5 Astroblemes.- 1.7.6 Recent and Contemporary Displacements.- 1.7.6.1 General Remarks.- 1.7.6.2 Vertical Displacements.- 1.7.6.3 Horizontal Displacements.- 2. Geophysical Data Regarding the Earth.- 2.1 Results from Seismic Wave Propagation Studies.- 2.1.1 Earthquakes and Seismic Waves.- 2.1.2 The Basic Division of the Earth into Layers.- 2.1.3 The Crust.- 2.1.3.1 General Remarks.- 2.1.3.2 Continents.- 2.1.3.3 Oceans.- 2.1.3.4 Transition and Transformation Between Continental and Oceanic Crust.- 2.1.4 The Mantle.- 2.1.4.1 General Remarks.- 2.1.4.2 The Mohorovi?i? Discontinuity.- 2.1.4.3 The Upper Mantle.- 2.1.4.4 The Lower Mantle.- 2.1.5 The Core.- 2.1.5.1 General Remarks.- 2.1.5.2 The Core — Mantle Boundary.- 2.1.5.3 The Outer Core.- 2.1.5.4 The Inner Core Boundary.- 2.1.5.5 The Inner Core.- 2.2 Studies of the Earthquake Focus.- 2.2.1 General Remarks.- 2.2.2 Seismicity Studies.- 2.2.3 Magnitude and Energy Studies.- 2.2.4 Fault Plane Studies.- 2.2.5 Seismic Source Parameters.- 2.2.5.1 General Remarks.- 2.2.5.2 Kinematic Parameters.- 2.2.5.3 Dynamic Parameters.- 2.2.6 Temporal Sequence of Earthquakes.- 2.2.6.1 Introduction.- 2.2.6.2 Magnitude-Frequency Relations.- 2.2.6.3 Aftershock Sequences.- 2.2.6.4 Energy and Strain Release.- 2.2.6.5 Variability of Release Rates.- 2.3 Gravity Data.- 2.3.1 Gravity and Gravity Anomalies.- 2.3.2 Distribution of Gravity Anomalies.- 2.3.2.1 Continental Areas.- 2.3.2.2 Oceanic Regions.- 2.3.2.3 Global Scale.- 2.4 Underground Stresses.- 2.4.1 General Remarks.- 2.4.2 Direct In Situ Stress Determinations.- 2.4.2.1 Introduction.- 2.4.2.2 Stress Relief Methods.- 2.4.2.3 Restoration Methods.- 2.4.2.4 Wave Fields and Stresses.- 2.4.2.5 Results.- 2.4.3 Stresses from Hydraulic Fracturing.- 2.4.3.1 The Method.- 2.4.3.2 Results.- 2.4.4 Stress Determination from Seismic Effects.- 2.4.4.1 Introduction.- 2.4.4.2 Triggering of Seismic Events.- 2.4.4.3 Stresses from Fault-plane Solutions of Earthquakes.- 2.4.5 Stress Determination from Faults and Joints.- 2.4.5.1 Introduction.- 2.4.5.2 Faults.- 2.4.5.3 Joints.- 2.4.6 Geomorphology and Stresses.- 2.4.7 Petrofabrics and Tectonic Stresses.- 2.4.8 Global Results.- 2.5 Data from Age Determinations.- 2.5.1 General Remarks.- 2.5.2 Methods.- 2.5.3 Results from Radioactive Dating.- 2.6 Thermal Data.- 2.6.1 General Remarks.- 2.6.2 Surface Heat Flow Measurements.- 2.6.3 Temperature in the Earth’s Interior.- 2.7 Electromagnetic Effects.- 2.7.1 The Earth’s Magnetic Field.- 2.7.2 Paleomagnetism.- 2.7.3 Magnetic Reversals.- 2.7.4 Electrical Effects.- 2.8 Geochemical Data.- 2.8.1 General Remarks.- 2.8.2 Geochemistry of the Crust.- 2.8.3 Geochemistry of the Mantle.- 2.8.4 Geochemistry of the Core.- 3. The Mechanics of Deformation.- 3.1 Finite Strain in Rheological Bodies.- 3.1.1 The Physics of Deformation.- 3.1.2 The Structure of a Finite Strain Theory.- 3.1.3 Inhomogeneous Media.- 3.1.4 Additional Stress and Strain.- 3.2 Theoretical Rheology.- 3.2.1 Infinitesimal Elasticity Theory.- 3.2.1.1 Basic Assumptions.- 3.2.1.2 Special Cases.- 3.2.1.3 Dislocations.- 3.2.1.4 Heterogeneous Materials.- 3.2.2 Plasticity.- 3.2.2.1 Pure Plasticity.- 3.2.2.2 Imperfectly Plastic Materials.- 3.2.2.3 The Effect of Pore Pressure.- 3.2.3 Viscous Fluids.- 3.2.3.1 Fluid Kinematics.- 3.2.3.2 Dynamics of Viscous Fluids.- 3.2.3.3 Flow Through Porous Media.- 3.2.4 General Linear Bodies.- 3.2.4.1 Principles.- 3.2.4.2 Maxwell Liquid.- 3.2.4.3 Kelvin Solid.- 3.2.4.4 General Linear Viscoelastic Media.- 3.2.5 Non-Linear Creep.- 3.2.5.1 General Formulation.- 3.2.5.2 Logarithmic Creep.- 3.2.6 Thermohydrodynamics.- 3.2.6.1 Thermal Convection in Viscous Fluids.- 3.2.6.2 Heat Convection in Plastic Flow.- 3.3 The Physics of Fracture.- 3.3.1 Fundamentals.- 3.3.2 Phenomenological Aspects.- 3.3.3 Microscopic Aspects of Fracture.- 3.3.3.1 The Problem.- 3.3.3.2 The Griffith Theory of Brittle Fracture.- 3.3.3.3 Dilatant Behavior of Materials During Fracture.- 3.3.3.4 The Crack Propagation Velocity.- 3.3.4 Analytical Attempts.- 3.3.5 Heterogeneous Materials.- 3.4 Rheology of the Earth: The Basic Problem of Geodynamics.- 3.4.1 General Considerations.- 3.4.2 The Elastic Range.- 3.4.2.1 General Remarks.- 3.4.2.2 Laboratory Measurements.- 3.4.2.3 Indirect Measurements.- 3.4.3 The Attenuation Range.- 3.4.3.1 Laboratory Experiments.- 3.4.3.2 Seismic Wave Transmission.- 3.4.3.3 Aftershock Sequences.- 3.4.3.4 Tides and Rheology.- 3.4.3.5 Rheology and the Chandler Wobble.- 3.4.3.6 Rheology and Isostasy.- 3.4.3.7 Evaluation.- 3.4.4 The Failure Range.- 3.4.4.1 Introduction.- 3.4.4.2 Laboratory Experiments.- 3.4.4.3 In-situ Tests.- 3.4.4.4 Geostatic Considerations.- 4. Geodynamic Effects of the Rotation of the Earth.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 The Figure of the Earth.- 4.2.1 Present-Day Parameters.- 4.2.2 Simplified Equilibrium Theory of the Figure of the Earth.- 4.3 The Rotation of the Earth.- 4.3.1 Present-Day Phenomena.- 4.3.2 The Precession.- 4.3.3 Rotation in the Past.- 4.4 Tidal Effects.- 4.4.1 Tidal Variations of the Force of Gravity.- 4.4.2 Earth Tides.- 4.4.3 Phase Lag.- 4.4.4 Geodynamic Effects.- 4.5 The Question of Stability of the Earth’s Axis of Rotation.- 4.5.1 The Problem.- 4.5.2 Effects of Circulations on a Rigid Earth.- 4.5.3 Polar Wandering in a Yielding Earth.- 4.5.4 Convection Currents in the Mantle.- 4.6 Other Forces Due to the Rotation of the Earth.- 4.6.1 General Remarks.- 4.6.2 The “PoMuchtkraft”.- 4.6.3 The Coriolis Force.- 5. Planetary Problems.- 5.1 The Origin of the Earth as a Planet.- 5.1.1 Origin of the Universe.- 5.1.2 Origin of the Solar System.- 5.1.3 Birth of the Moon.- 5.2 The Evolution of the Earth as a Planet.- 5.2.1 The Problem.- 5.2.2 Theory of the State of the Earth’s Interior.- 5.2.3 The Earth’s Thermal History.- 5.3 Continents and Oceans.- 5.3.1 The Nature of the Problem.- 5.3.2 The Formation of Continents by Convection.- 5.3.3 Possibility of Present-Day Convection.- 5.4 Historical Remarks.- 5.4.1 Introduction.- 5.4.2 Tetrahedral Shrinkage.- 5.4.3 Formation of Continents by Expansion.- 6. Orogenesis.- 6.1 Fundamental Global Tectonic Relationships.- 6.1.1 Introduction.- 6.1.2 Plate Tectonics.- 6.1.2.1 Principles.- 6.1.2.2 Rifting.- 6.1.2.3 Drifting.- 6.1.2.4 Collision-subduction.- 6.1.3 Geosynclines.- 6.1.4 Volume Relationships in Orogenesis.- 6.1.4.1 General Remarks.- 6.1.4.2 Continental Orogenesis.- 6.1.4.3 Oceanic Orogenesis.- 6.1.5 Global Energetics.- 6.1.6 Rare Events.- 6.2 Theory of Plate Motions.- 6.2.1 General Remarks.- 6.2.2 The Problem of Thermal Stability.- 6.2.3 Convection Currents.- 6.2.4 Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots.- 6.2.5 Self-generating Mechanisms.- 6.2.5.1 Basic Description.- 6.2.5.2 Dynamics of Slab Descent.- 6.2.5.3 Spreading Centers.- 6.2.5.4 Countercirculation.- 6.2.5.5 Synthesis.- 6.2.6 Passive Crustal Effects.- 6.2.6.1 Principles.- 6.2.6.2 Rifting.- 6.2.6.3 Drifting.- 6.2.6.4 Converging Plate Margins.- 6.3 Other Theories of Orogenesis.- 6.3.1 General Remarks.- 6.3.2 The Undation Theory.- 6.3.3 The Contraction Hypothesis.- 6.3.4 Expansion Hypothesis of Orogenesis.- 6.3.5 Membrane Tectonics.- 6.3.6 Effects of Despinning and Tidal Flexure.- 6.3.7 Cosmological Speculations.- 6.4 Conclusion.- 7. Geotectonics.- 7.1 General Remarks.- 7.2 Theory of Tectonic Features.- 7.2.1 Introduction.- 7.2.2 Theory of Geotectonic Failure Phenomena.- 7.2.2.1 Introductory Remarks.- 7.2.2.2 Phenomenological Theory.- 7.2.2.3 Analytical Attempts.- 7.2.2.4 Second-order Faults.- 7.2.2.5 Non-brittle Fracture.- 7.2.2.6 The Role of Pore Pressure.- 7.2.2.7 Joints.- 7.2.2.8 Theory of Valley Orientations in Plan.- 7.2.3 Folding.- 7.2.3.1 Introduction.- 7.2.3.2 Elastic Buckling.- 7.2.3.3 Theories Assuming Infinitely Flexible Strata..- 7.2.3.4 Viscous Layers.- 7.2.3.5 Plastic Materials.- 7.2.3.6 General Rheology.- 7.2.3.7 Model Experiments of Folding.- 7.2.4 Theory of Petrofabrics.- 7.2.4.1 Introduction.- 7.2.4.2 Pebble Shapes.- 7.2.4.3 Mechanical Deformation of Crystals.- 7.2.4.4 Theory of Orientation of Grains in Polycrystalline Rocks.- 7.2.4.5 Stylolites.- 7.2.4.6 Microjoints, Microfolds, and Similar Features.- 7.3 Theory of the Seismic Source.- 7.3.1 General Remarks.- 7.3.2 Models of Earthquake Preparation.- 7.3.3 Models of Earthquake Foci.- 7.3.3.1 General Remarks.- 7.3.3.2 Rigid Fault-plane Model.- 7.3.3.3 Stress Singularities.- 7.3.3.4 Strain Singularities.- 7.3.3.5 Fractures Theory of Earthquakes.- 7.3.4 Mechanical Triggering of Earthquakes.- 7.3.4.1 Introduction.- 7.3.4.2 Solar Activity.- 7.3.4.3 Increase of Surface Load.- 7.3.4.4 Increase of Pore Pressure.- 7.4 Boundary Effects.- 7.4.1 Introduction.- 7.4.2 Stresses on Surface Irregularities.- 7.4.2.1 Theory.- 7.4.2.2 Valleys.- 7.4.2.3 Protrusions.- 7.4.2.4 Rock Walls.- 7.4.2.5 Exfoliation.- 7.4.2.6 The Pre-design of Mass Movements.- 7.4.3 Holes and Inclusions.- 7.4.3.1 Theory.- 7.4.3.2 Applications: Mines and Tunnels.- 7.4.3.3 Wells.- 7.5 Characteristic Geomechanical Features.- 7.5.1 Introduction.- 7.5.2 The Selection Principle.- 7.5.3 Analytical and Mechanical Modeling.- 7.5.4 Finite-Element Techniques.- 8. Theory of Some Local Features.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Boudinage.- 8.2.1 Experimental Approach.- 8.2.2 Theoretical Approach.- 8.2.3 Tectonic Lenses.- 8.3 Theory of Piercement Structures.- 8.3.1 Principles of a Theory of Domes.- 8.3.2 Gravitational Instability.- 8.3.2.1 General Remarks.- 8.3.2.2 Analytical Attempts.- 8.3.2.3 Model Studies of Domes.- 8.3.2.4 Numerical Calculations.- 8.3.3 Igneous Intrusions.- 8.3.3.1 Introduction.- 8.3.3.2 Dike Formation.- 8.3.3.3 Sill Formation.- 8.4 Theory of Volcanic Effects.- 8.4.1 Introduction.- 8.4.2 The Shape of Volcanoes.- 8.4.3 Volcanic Heat and Orogenesis.- 8.4.4 Mechanism of Volcanic Eruptions.- 8.4.5 Heat Flow and Volcanic Intrusions.- 8.5 Theory of Impact Features.- 8.5.1 Introduction.- 8.5.2 Crater Correlations.- 8.5.3 Impact Mechanics.- 8.5.3.1 General Remarks.- 8.5.3.2 The Depth of the Source.- 8.5.3.3 Analytical Models.- 8.5.3.4 Experimental Analogies.- 8.5.3.5 Numerical Experiments.- 8.5.4 The Behavior of Ejecta.- 8.5.5 Gravitational Crater Modification.- 8.6 Theory of Contemporary Displacements.- 8.6.1 General Remarks.- 8.6.2 Isostatic Displacements.- 8.6.3 Local Movements.- 8.6.4 Orogenetic Displacements.- Author Index.