Planar Processing Primer

1. Planar Processing and Basic Devices.- 1.1 Basic Devices.- 1.2 Device Isolation.- 1.3 Interconnects.- 1.4 Basic Processes.- 1.5 Insulating Layer Fabrication.- 1.6 Silicon Layer Deposition.- 1.7 Selectively Doping Silicon.- 1.8 Pattern Delimitation; Lithography.- 1.9 Summary.- 2. Wafers.- 2.1 Crystallographic Considerations.- 2.2 Mono- versus Polycrystals.- 2.3 Structure, Planes, and Directions.- 2.4 Principal Plane Properties.- 2.5 Crystal Structure Implications.- 2.6 Scribing Considerations.- 2.7 Doping Considerations.- 2.8 Polysilicon Preparation.- 2.9 Single-Crystal Growth.- 2.10 Czochralski Method.- 2.11 Float Zone Method.- 2.12 Wafer Preparation.- 3. Wafer Measurements.- 3.1 Type Determination.- 3.2 Resistivity and Doping Measurements.- 3.3 Van der Pauw Measurement.- 3.4 Four Point Probe (FPP).- 3.5 Thickness Correction Factors.- 3.6 Diffused or Implanted Layers.- 3.7 Size Correction Factors.- 3.8 Sheet Resistance (RS).- 3.9 RS Shape Correction Factors.- 3.10 Modified FPP Configurations.- 3.11 Temperature Correction.- 3.12 Other Resistivity Measuring Systems.- 3.13 Depletion Layer Capacitance Profiling.- 3.14 Junction Depth Determination.- 3.15 Film Thickness Measurement.- 3.16 Surface Profilers.- 4. Equilibrium Concepts.- 4.1 Definitions.- 4.2 Phase Rule.- 4.3 Unary Systems.- 4.4 Binary Systems.- 4.5 Isomorphous Binary Systems.- 4.6 Eutectic Binary Systems.- 4.7 Binary Systems; Complete Solid Insolubility.- 4.8 The Eutectic.- 4.9 Binary Systems; Partial Solid Solubility.- 4.10 Contact Formation Temperatures.- 4.11 Limit of Solid Solubility.- 4.12 Distribution Coefficient.- 4.13 Decant Refining.- 4.14 Congruent Transformations.- 4.15 Peritectic Transformations.- 4.16 Contact Systems.- 5. Oxidation.- 5.1 Structure.- 5.2 Phase Changes.- 5.3 Other Processing Glasses.- 5.4 Thermal Oxidation; Diffusion.- 5.5 Oxidation Model.- 5.6 Oxidation Plots.- 5.7 Computer Calculations.- 5.8 Special Oxidations.- 5.9 Oxidation of Silicon Nitride.- 5.10. Thickness Determination.- 6. Diffusion: Predeposition.- 6.1 Diffusion in Monocrystals.- 6.2 Fick’s Laws of Diffusion.- 6.3 Predeposition Diffusion (Case I).- 6.4 Predep Junction Formation.- 6.5 Calculation of Sheet Resistance.- 6.6 Oxide Masking.- 6.7 Processing Parameters and xj.- 6.8 Furnaces.- 6.9 Predep Sources.- 6.10 On-Wafer Sources.- 6.11 Off-Wafer Sources.- 6.12 Gas Primary Sources.- 6.13 Liquid Primary Sources.- 6.14 Solid Primary Sources.- 6.15 Predep Evaluation.- 6.16 Thermomigration.- 7. Diffusion; Redistribution.- 7.1 Drive Diffusion (Case IV).- 7.2 Drive Junction Formation.- 7.3 Time Dependent Diffusivity.- 7.4 BJT Processing Equations.- 7.5 Sheet Resistance.- 7.6 Outdiffusion into Growing Epitaxial Layers (Case V), Autodoping.- 7.7 Outdiffusion into Growing Oxide Layer (Case VI).- 7.8 Redistribution During Oxide CVD.- 7.9 Junction Formation by Outdiffusion (Case VII).- 7.10 Anomalous Profiles.- 7.11 Arsenic Emitter.- 7.12 Phosphorus Emitter.- 7.13 Correction for ? versus N Curve.- 8. Ion Implantation.- 8.1 Basic Mechanism.- 8.2 Generic Ion Implanter.- 8.3 Electric and Magnetic Deflection.- 8.4 Implanter Sections.- 8.5 Scanning.- 8.6 Process Chamber.- 8.7 Beam Current Measurement; Faraday Cups.- 8.8 Implant Profiles.- 8.9 Dose Calculation.- 8.10 Sheet Resistance.- 8.11 Masking.- 8.12 Radiation Damage.- 8.13 Annealing.- 8.14 Applications.- 8.15 Implantation in Compound Semiconductors.- 9. Chemical Vapor Deposition; Epitaxy.- 9.1 Basic Chemical Processes.- 9.2 Deposited Film Structure.- 9.3 Silicon Epitaxial System.- 9.4 Chemicals for Silicon Epitaxy.- 9.5 Gas-Flow Dynamics.- 9.6 Doping Considerations.- 9.7 Spurious Doping.- 9.8 Substrate Preparation.- 9.9 Deposition Cycle.- 9.10 Nonplanar Epi.- 9.11 Low-Pressure Epitaxy (LPE).- 9.12 Epi Layer Evaluation.- 9.13 CVD of Polycrystal and Amorphous Films.- 9.14 Low-Pressure CVD (LPCVD).- 9.15 Plasma-Enhanced CVD (PECVD).- 9.16 Photopyrolysis.- 9.17 Photolysis.- 9.18 Compound Semiconductors; MOCVD.- 10. Etching.- 10.1 Types; Processes.- 10.2 Wet Etching.- 10.3 Oxide Etching.- 10.4 Isotropic Si Etch.- 10.5 Anisotropic Si Etches.- 10.6 Anisotropic Si Etch: Applications.- 10.7 Other Insulator Etches.- 10.8 Metal Etches.- 10.9 Lift-Off Technique.- 10.10 Wafer Cleaning.- 10.11 Wet versus Dry Etching.- 10.12 Dry Etching.- 10.13 Plasma Etching Reactors.- 10.14 Endpoint Detection.- 10.15 Reactive Plasma Etching.- 10.16 Anisotropic Etching.- 10.17 Nonreactive Ion Etching: Sputtering.- 10.18 Reactive Ion Etching (RIE).- 10.19 Radiation Damage.- 10.20 Compound Semiconductors.- 11. Lithography.- 11.1 Pattern Transfer Processes.- 11.2 Mask-Based Photolithography.- 11.3 Global Aligners.- 11.4 Direct Step-on-Wafer System (DSW).- 11.5 Direct Write-on-Wafer (DWW).- 11.6 Photomasks.- 11.7 Photoresists.- 11.8 PR Application.- 11.9 PR Processing.- 11.10 Multilayer Photoresists.- 11.11 X-Ray Lithography (XRL).- 11.12 Electron Beam Lithography (EBL).- 12. Physical Vapor Deposition; Sputtering.- 12.1 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD).- 12.2 Evaporation.- 12.3 Transit.- 12.4 Film Formation.- 12.5 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE).- 12.6 Sputter Deposition.- 12.7 Plasma Environment.- 12.8 Setup.- 12.9 Film Formation.- 12.10 Alloys, Compounds, Reactive Sputtering.- 12.11 Planar Magnetron Sputtering.- 12.12 Bias Sputtering.- 12.13 Ion Plating.- Appendix A. Four-Point-Probe Derivations; Optical Interference.- A.1 Semi-Infinite (S-I) Sample.- A.2 Thickness Correction for l-t Samples.- A.3 Logarithmic Potential Derivation for Thin Samples.- A.4 Optical Interference.- Appendix B. Ion/Field Interactions.- Appendix C. The Glow Discharge.- C.1 General Gas Discharge.- C.2 The Glow.- C.3 A-C/R-F Glow Discharge.- C.4 R-F Problems.- C.5 Modified Techniques.- Appendix D. Gas Systems.- D.1 Basic Concepts.- D.2 Conductance Calculations.- D.3 Gas Supply Systems.- D.4 Gas Distribution Systems.- D.5 Exhaust Pump Considerations.- F.5.4. Dry Oxidation Curves for (111) Silicon Showing the Effect of Oxidant Pressure.- F.5.5. Dry Oxidation Curves of (111) Silicon with Added Chlorides.- F.5.6. Wet Oxidation of (111) Silicon and Silicon Nitride.- F.5.7. MBASIC Program for Oxidation of Silicon at Atmospheric Pressure.- F.6.1. Diffusion Data.- F.6.2. Error Function Properties.- F.6.3. Error Function Table.- F.6.5. Irvin Sheet Resistance Curves.- F.6.6. Oxide Masking Curves for Boron Predep.- F.6.7. Oxide Masking Curves for Phosphorus Predep.- F.6.8. Vapor Pressure Curves of Liquid Predep Sources.- F.6.10 Boron Nitride Predep Curves.- F.8.1. Ion Implantation: Effective Range Data.- Appendix G. Numerical Constants.- Appendix H. Furnace Construction.