Geothermal Resources

1 The Origins of Earth Heat.- 1.1 Beginnings.- 1.1.1 Genesis.- 1.1.2 Accumulation of planetesimals.- 1.1.3 Differentiation of the Earth.- 1.1.4 Accretional heating.- 1.1.5 Heat source distribution during accretion.- 1.2 Developments.- 1.2.1 Origin of core, mantle and crust.- 1.2.2 Oceanic crust.- 1.2.3 Continental crust.- 1.2.4 Melting during subduction.- 1.2.5 Mineral transformations and slab sinking (megaliths).- 1.2.6 ‘Plum pudding’ mixture.- 1.2.7 Convection in the mantle.- 1.2.8 The role of eclogite in the upper mantle.- 1.2.9 The lower mantle.- 1.2.10 Material transfer through the double-boundary thermal zone.- 1.2.11 Inner and outer cores.- 1.2.12 Temperature profile.- 1.3 Inferences.- 1.3.1 The early crust.- 1.3.2 The later crust.- 1.3.3 Plate tectonics.- 1.3.4 Generation of crust.- 1.3.5 Stabilization of continental crust.- 1.3.6 The evolution of the Earth.- 1.3.7 The geochronological aspects of geothermal gradients.- 1.3.8 Earth heat.- 1.3.9 Closing the gaps.- 2 Geothermal Systems and Models.- 2.1 Geo thermal Systems.- 2.2 Classification.- 2.2.1 Convective geothermal systems.- 2.2.2 Conductive geothermal systems.- 2.3 Heat Transfer.- 2.3.1 Fractured media.- 2.3.2 Balance laws for fluid flow.- 2.4 Ideal Models.- 2.4.1 Linear stability.- 2.4.2 Real geothermal systems.- 2.4.3 Non-linear theory.- 2.4.4 Feasible models.- 2.5 East Mesa Anomaly, Imperial Valley, California, USA: A Conceptual Model.- 2.6 Pre-production Models of Hydrothermal Systems.- 2.6.1 Long Valley Caldera, Sierra Nevada, California, USA.- 2.6.2 Salton Sea, California, USA.- 2.6.3 Olkaria, Kenya, East Africa.- 2.6.4 Wairakei, North Island, New Zealand.- 3 Geothermal Exploration.- 3.1 Objective.- 3.2 Methods.- 3.2.1 Geological, hydrological and mineralogical methods.- 3.2.2 Geophysical methods.- 3.2.3 Geochemical and isotopic methods.- 3.2.4 Drilling.- 3.2.5 Geothermal energy recovery using oil exploration data.- 4 Geothermal Resource Assessment.- 4.1 General Considerations.- 4.2 Methods.- 4.2.1 Surface heat flux.- 4.2.2 Volume.- 4.2.3 Planar fracture.- 4.2.4 Magmatic heat budget.- 4.3 Resupply of Heat.- 4.4 Nomenclature.- 4.5 Global Geothermal Resources.- 4.5.1 Overview.- 5 Exploitation of Geothermal Fields.- 5.1 Background.- 5.2 General Model.- 5.2.1 Single-phase model.- 5.2.2 Two-phase model.- 5.3 Re-injection.- 5.4 Artificial Stimulation.- 5.4.1 Conventional explosives.- 5.4.2 Nuclear explosives.- 5.5 Hot Dry Rock.- 5.5.1 The Los Alamos Project (USA).- 5.5.2 The Camborne School of Mines Project (UK).- 5.5.3 Ancillary aspects.- 5.5.4 Future prospects for geothermal HDR in the UK.- 5.6 Future Prospects for Geothermal Aquifers in the UK.- 5.7 European Experience.- 5.8 Equipment Necessary for Exploitation.- 5.8.1 Production pumps.- 5.8.2 Piping.- 5.8.3 Heat exchangers.- 5.8.4 Heat pumps.- 5.8.5 Re-injection pumps.- 5.8.6 Corrosion and scaling.- 5.8.7 Geothermal power plants.- 6 Environmental Impact.- 6.1 Reflections on Consequences.- 6.2 Air and Water Quality.- 6.3 Water from Geothermal Resources.- 6.3.1 Distillation.- 6.3.2 Other techniques.- 6.3.3 Budgets.- 6.4 Geological Hazards.- 6.5 Plant and Animal Life.- 6.6 Environmental Issues.- 7 Uses of Geothermal Energy.- 7.1 World Energy.- 7.2 Non-electrical Uses of Geothermal Energy.- 7.2.1 Transmission of geothermal heat.- 7.2.2 Process heating.- 7.2.3 Space heating.- 7.2.4 Group heating schemes.- 7.2.5 Horticulture and fish farming.- 7.2.6 Heating equipment appropriate to geothermal systems.- 7.3 Geothermal Prognosis.- 7.3.1 India.- 7.3.2 Thailand.- 7.3.3 Kenya.- 7.3.4 Santa Lucia.- 7.3.5 A developed country—Italy.- Appendixes.- 1. Geothermal Miscellanea.- 2. Companies of Geothermal Interest.- 3. Organizations of Geothermal Interest.- 4. World Geothermal Localities.- Author Index.