Enforced performance of commercial sales contracts in the Netherlands, Singapore and China

Acknowledgements ix
Abbreviations xi
Table of cases xiii
Table of figures xxiii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Research questions 8
1.3 Relevance 10
1.4 Approach 11
1.5 Terminology 15

2 Historical and contemporary fundaments of sales law 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Civil Code in the Netherlands 23
2.3 English common law roots in Singapore 26
2.4 A mixture of legal and cultural traditions in China 30
2.5 Conclusions 35

3 Ambit of a commercial sales contract 39
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Concept of a sales contract 39
3.3 Goods subject to sales law 49
3.4 Formation of an enforceable commercial sales contract 60
3.4.1 Introduction 60
3.4.2 Offer and acceptance model 62
3.4.3 Definiteness of the obligations assumed in an offer 70
3.4.4 Binding effect of offer and acceptance 80
3.4.5 Synallagmatic performances, cause or valuable consideration 87
3.4.6 Conclusions 95
3.5 Conclusions 98

4 General availability of enforced performance 101
4.1 Introduction 101
4.2 Historical and contemporary underpinnings of enforced performance 102
4.2.1 Introduction 102
4.2.2 Primary status of performance in the Netherlands 103
4.2.3 Exceptional nature of enforced performance in Singapore 116
4.2.4 A compromise of principles in China 125
4.2.5 Conclusions 143
4.3 Payment of the agreed price 148
4.3.1 Introduction 148
4.3.2 The right of action to obtain the agreed price in the Netherlands 149
4.3.3 An action for the price in Singapore 151
4.3.4 Right to demand payment in China 154
4.3.5 Conclusions 155
4.4 Non-monetary obligations 160
4.4.1 Introduction 160
4.4.2 Right to enforced performance in the Netherlands 161
4.4.3 The discretionary remedy in Singapore 164
4.4.4 Mixed approaches in China 175
4.4.5 Conclusions 179
4.5 Ancillary performance obligations arising from the principle of good faith 185
4.6 Conclusions 193

5 Specific failures to bring about a certain state of affairs 199
5.1 Introduction 199
5.2 Non-delivery of the goods 200
5.3 Failure in taking delivery of the goods 210
5.4 Discrepancy in quantity and quality 217
5.4.1 Introduction 217
5.4.2 Shortfall in goods 219
5.4.3 Repair and replacement 224
5.4.4 Inspection and notification duties 237
5.4.5 Conclusions 243
5.5 Conclusions 247

6 Barriers to the availability of enforced performance 251
6.1 Introduction 251
6.2 Impediments 252
6.2.1 Introduction 252
6.2.2 Initial impossibility 254
6.2.3 Subsequent impossibility 264
6.2.4 Hardship and performance being unreasonably burdensome or expensive 275
6.2.5 Conclusions 288
6.3 Delayed request for delivery 292
6.4 Limitation of the action 298
6.4.1 Introduction 298
6.4.2 The limitation period itself 299
6.4.3 Modification by agreement 305
6.4.4 Renewal and extension of limitation periods 308
6.4.5 The effects of expiration 311
6.4.6 Conclusions 314
6.5 Duty to mitigate in the form of a precautionary cover transaction 316
6.6 Supervision on enforcement 321
6.7 Conclusions 327

7 Enforcement measures 333
7.1 Introduction 333
7.2 Action for handing over the goods 334
7.3 Obtaining substitute goods at the expense of the seller 339
7.4 Judicial penalty 344
7.5 Contractual penalty 348
7.6 Conclusions 357

8 Derogatory agreements 361

9 Conclusions and recommendations 369

Bibliography 389
Index 409