Research Methods for Social Psychology, Second Edi tion

<p>Preface to the Second Edition xi</p>
<p>Acknowledgments xiv</p>
<p>About the Author xv</p>
<p>1 Studying Social Psychology 1</p>
<p>Introducing and Defining Social Psychology 1</p>
<p>Establishing Causality: The Importance of Experimentation in Social Psychology 3</p>
<p>Levels of Explanation: Social Psychology s Relation to Other Fields of Inquiry 5</p>
<p>Personality Psychology s Relation to Social Psychology 7</p>
<p>The Scientific Method: Doing Social Psychology 8</p>
<p>Why? Social Psychology is Social 11</p>
<p>Social Thought 12</p>
<p>Social Influence 12</p>
<p>Social Connections 12</p>
<p>Where? The Lab and the Field 13</p>
<p>The Lab 13</p>
<p>The Field 13</p>
<p>One More Distinction: Basic and Applied Research 15</p>
<p>Social Psychologists Today 16</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 1A: Learning About Active Social Psychologists 16</p>
<p>Learning Research Methods for Social Psychology 18</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 1B: Planning a Research Project in Social Psychology 18</p>
<p>Exercises 19</p>
<p>2 Developing Research Topics in Social Psychology 20</p>
<p>The Scope of Social Psychology 22</p>
<p>Traditional Topics and New Avenues for Research 23</p>
<p>Extending Earlier Research 26</p>
<p>Finding a Research Question 26</p>
<p>Self–Reflection 26</p>
<p>Explore but Verify Hindsight 27</p>
<p>Your Campus 27</p>
<p>Your Community 28</p>
<p>Look to the Media 29</p>
<p>The Wider World 29</p>
<p>Ask an Expert 30</p>
<p>The World Wide Web 30</p>
<p>Watch Other People 31</p>
<p>Other Sources for Research Ideas 31</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 2A: Developing Topic Ideas by Brainstorming 32</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 2B: Keeping a Social Psychology Log 33</p>
<p>Searching the Social Psychological Literature 34</p>
<p>Searching Databases 36</p>
<p>Searching the Library Catalog 39</p>
<p>Seeking Help: Speak to Reference Professionals 39</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 2C: Maintaining a Bibliography and Organizing Sources 40</p>
<p>Reading Social Psychology Research 41</p>
<p>Borrowing Ideas from Published Social Psychology Experiments 43</p>
<p>Exercises 44</p>
<p>3 Ethical Issues in Social Psychological Research 45</p>
<p>Milgram s Obedience Research 47</p>
<p>Other Ethically Challenging Examples 50</p>
<p>The Problem of Deception in Social Psychology Experiments: Balancing Benefits and Costs 51</p>
<p>Arguments for Using Deception: Some Benefits 53</p>
<p>Arguments Against Using Deception: The Costs 55</p>
<p>The Special Role of Confederates 56</p>
<p>Labels Do Matter: Participants, Not Subjects 57</p>
<p>Institutional Review Boards 59</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 3A: Forming an In–Class IRB 61</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 3B: Completing an IRB Form 62</p>
<p>Informed Consent is Essential 63</p>
<p>Confidentiality 64</p>
<p>Obtaining Informed Consent 65</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 3C: Creating an Informed Consent Form for Your Project 66</p>
<p>Ethical Issues and Field Research 68</p>
<p>Shared Virtues: Ethical Treatment, Education, and Science 69</p>
<p>A Last Word on Ethics? 70</p>
<p>Exercises 71</p>
<p>4 Basic Experimental Design 72</p>
<p>The Logic of Experimentation 73</p>
<p>The Advantages of Experiments 76</p>
<p>Why Experiments Matter in Social Psychology 77</p>
<p>Turning a Research Question into a Hypothesis 77</p>
<p>Operational Definitions in Social Psychological Research 78</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 4A: Writing an Operational Definition 80</p>
<p>Independent and Dependent Variables 81</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 4B: Identifying Independent and Dependent Variables in Social Psychology Experiments 82</p>
<p>Doing Randomization in Social Psychology Experiments 83</p>
<p>Issues of Error 83</p>
<p>Sampling and Randomization 87</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 4C: Performing Random Assignment and Random Selection 89</p>
<p>Common Experimental Designs in Social Psychology 92</p>
<p>Between–Subjects Research Designs 92</p>
<p>Within–Subjects Research Designs 98</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 4D: Recognizing Main Effects and Interactions 99</p>
<p>Joining Between– and Within–Subject Variables: Mixed Designs 104</p>
<p>Design Matters 104</p>
<p>Exercises 105</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 4B Answers 105</p>
<p>Table 4.6 Answers 105</p>
<p>5 Alternatives to Experimental Research in Social Psychology 106</p>
<p>Leaving the Comfort of the Lab: Problems and Prospects 109</p>
<p>Observational Research 110</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 5A: Designing and Conducting an Observational Study 111</p>
<p>Correlational Approaches 112</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 5B: Conducting a Correlational Study on Personality 115</p>
<p>Quasi–Experimental Research Designs 117</p>
<p>Nonequivalent Group Designs 118</p>
<p>Time Series Designs 120</p>
<p>Survey Research 123</p>
<p>Approaches to Surveying Opinion 123</p>
<p>Experience Sampling Methods and Diary Approaches 124</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 5C: Conducting an ESM Study 125</p>
<p>Dear Diary: An Example 126</p>
<p>Internet–Based Research 127</p>
<p>Internet Ethics 128</p>
<p>Time, Participant Loss, and Sampling Issues 129</p>
<p>An Internet–Based Example: Online Character Pre– and Post–September 11, 2001 131</p>
<p>Archival Research and Meta–Analysis 133</p>
<p>Summarizing Studies of Social Behavior: Meta–Analysis 138</p>
<p>Conclusions 140</p>
<p>Exercises 140</p>
<p>6 Developing Questionnaires and Surveys 142</p>
<p>Caveat Emptor: Let the (Jam) Buyer Beware 143</p>
<p>The Obvious Advantage of Asking Questions 145</p>
<p>Sampling Issues 146</p>
<p>Probability and Nonprobability Samples 147</p>
<p>Scales of Measurement 149</p>
<p>Nominal Scales 150</p>
<p>Ordinal Scales 151</p>
<p>Interval Scales 151</p>
<p>Ratio Scales 151</p>
<p>Types of Questions: Open–Ended and Close–Ended 152</p>
<p>Open–Ended Questions 152</p>
<p>Close–Ended Questions 154</p>
<p>The Most Common and Useful Numerical Scale: The Likert Scale 155</p>
<p>Writing Clear Questions 157</p>
<p>Phrasing 158</p>
<p>Sequencing Questions 163</p>
<p>Being Sensitive 165</p>
<p>Last Words on Wording for Questionnaires and Surveys 165</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 6A: Writing and Revising Questions 166</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 6B: Pilot Testing Questions 167</p>
<p>Social Desirability Concerns, Halo Effects, and Yea–Saying 167</p>
<p>We Like to be Liked 167</p>
<p>Likes or Dislikes Can Matter 169</p>
<p>Yes, Yes, A Thousand Times, Yes 170</p>
<p>Anonymity or Identity? 171</p>
<p>A Brief Word on Survey Data Collection 171</p>
<p>Questionnaires and Surveys as Precursors to Experiments 172</p>
<p>Exercises 173</p>
<p>7 Introducing a Difference: Independent Variables 174</p>
<p>Conceiving Independent Variables 176</p>
<p>Types of Independent Variables 178</p>
<p>Can One Operationalization of an Independent Variable Represent All Possibilities? 180</p>
<p>Providing Context for the Independent Variable: Instructions 181</p>
<p>Plan for Piloting 182</p>
<p>Delivering the Independent Variable 182</p>
<p>Delivery via Authority: The Experimenter 183</p>
<p>Personal Delivery: Confederates and Peers 184</p>
<p>Written Delivery 185</p>
<p>Other Forms of Delivery 185</p>
<p>One More Time: Instruct, Repeat, and Probe 186</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 7A: Developing Independent Variables 187</p>
<p>How Many Independent Variables? A Reprise 188</p>
<p>Individual Differences as Independent Variables: Prospects and Problems 188</p>
<p>Verifying Cause and Effect: Manipulation Checks 189</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 7B: Developing a Manipulation Check 191</p>
<p>The Best Laid Plans (and Independent Variables) 192</p>
<p>Perform an Internal Analysis 193</p>
<p>Ask Participants But be Wary 194</p>
<p>Impact: Increase Obviousness 194</p>
<p>Reconsider the Hypothesis 195</p>
<p>Keep a Causal Focus 196</p>
<p>Exercises 196</p>
<p>8 Measuring What Happens: Dependent Variables 198</p>
<p>Behavioral Dependent Measures 199</p>
<p>Measuring What People Do 202</p>
<p>Measuring Intentions and Future Commitments 205</p>
<p>Behavioral Measures in Disguise: Unobtrusive Measures 206</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 8A: Creating Creative Dependent Measures 208</p>
<p>Verbal Measures 209</p>
<p>Varieties of Verbal Measures Revisited 210</p>
<p>Some Additional Verbal Dependent Measures 214</p>
<p>Other Types of Dependent Measures 216</p>
<p>Nonverbal Measures 216</p>
<p>Implicit Measures 216</p>
<p>Physiological Measures 217</p>
<p>False Physiological Feedback: The Bogus Pipeline 219</p>
<p>Narrative Approaches 219</p>
<p>Some Practical Issues for Administering Dependent Variables 219</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 8B: Developing Dependent Variables by Looking to the Literature 221</p>
<p>Reliability and Dependent Variables 222</p>
<p>Exercises 223</p>
<p>9 Validity and Realism in Research 224</p>
<p>Trusting Research Evidence: Demonstrating Internal Validity 226</p>
<p>General Threats to Internal Validity 228</p>
<p>Reprise: Ways to Enhance a Study s Internal Validity 231</p>
<p>Generalizing to Other Settings: External Validity 231</p>
<p>External Validity via Replication 232</p>
<p>College Sophomores as Threats to External Validity 233</p>
<p>Context Matters 234</p>
<p>Enhancing External Validity 235</p>
<p>In Praise of External Invalidity 236</p>
<p>The Social Psychologist s Challenge: Trade–Offs Between Internal and External Validity 237</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 9A: Evaluating Your Project s Internal and External Validity 238</p>
<p>Making It Real: Mundane, Experimental, and Psychological Realism 239</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 9B: Enhancing Mundane and Experimental Realism 242</p>
<p>(Re)Considering Construct Validity 243</p>
<p>Beyond Construct Validity 244</p>
<p>Validity and Realism via Replication 244</p>
<p>Exercises 245</p>
<p>10 Conducting Social Psychology Experiments: Practical Matters 246</p>
<p>Setting the Stage 248</p>
<p>Deception Revisited: Think Carefully Before You Decide to Deceive Participants 249</p>
<p>Recruiting Participants 250</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 10A: Participant Pools, Sign–up Sheets, and Giving Credit 250</p>
<p>Demand Characteristics 253</p>
<p>Reducing Experimenter Biases 254</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 10B: Writing a Script for Your Study 257</p>
<p>Record Keeping 259</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 10C: Creating a Data Record Sheet 260</p>
<p>Conducting a Postexperimental Interview 262</p>
<p>On The Rare Occasion When Deception Is Necessary 263</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 10D: Crafting a Debriefing Protocol 263</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 10E: Writing a Debriefing Sheet 265</p>
<p>Closing Thoughts: Pilot Testing and Long–Term Change 266</p>
<p>Exercises 267</p>
<p>11 Data Analysis 268</p>
<p>Basic Statistics 270</p>
<p>Mean, Mode, and Median 271</p>
<p>Variance and Standard Deviation 273</p>
<p>Correlation: A Reprise 274</p>
<p>Some Brief Comments on Statistical Power and Effect Size and a Caveat 274</p>
<p>The Role of Data Analysis in Social Psychological Research 276</p>
<p>Plan Analyses In Advance 277</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 11A: Planning Data Analyses and Selecting the Proper Statistical Test(s) 278</p>
<p>Interpreting and Reporting Results 281</p>
<p>Stereotype Threat Revisited 282</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 11B: Putting Results into Words 284</p>
<p>Learning from Success, Learning from Failure 287</p>
<p>Exercises 287</p>
<p>12 Presenting Social Psychological Research 288</p>
<p>Persuasive Communication 289</p>
<p>Who 289</p>
<p>What 290</p>
<p>Whom 290</p>
<p>Writing Like a Social Psychologist: A Matter of (APA) Style 291</p>
<p>Sections Found in APA–Style Papers 292</p>
<p>Title 295</p>
<p>Author Note 296</p>
<p>Abstract 296</p>
<p>Introduction 297</p>
<p>Method 300</p>
<p>Results 302</p>
<p>Discussion 303</p>
<p>References 305</p>
<p>Tables and Figures 307</p>
<p>Appendix 308</p>
<p>Additional Formatting Guidelines 308</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 12A: Drafting an APA–Style Lab Report of Your Social Psychology Project 309</p>
<p>Seeking Feedback on Your Writing 311</p>
<p>Preparing a Poster Summary 312</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 12B: Making a Poster 314</p>
<p>Enter Talking: Preparing and Delivering Oral Research Presentations 314</p>
<p>Preparing a Talk 315</p>
<p>Evaluating a Talk 317</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 12C: Giving Social Psychology Away via Audience Handouts 318</p>
<p>Active Learning Exercise 12D: Host a Paper or Poster Session 318</p>
<p>Parting Thoughts 319</p>
<p>Exercises 320</p>
<p>Appendix A Major Journals in Social Psychology 321</p>
<p>Appendix B Reading Journal Articles in Social Psychology 322</p>
<p>Appendix C Student Research Paper 325</p>
<p>References 338</p>
<p>Author Index 361</p>
<p>Subject Index 371</p>